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RESTRl~TED
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. WAR' DEPART MENT .
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HEADQI ARTERS l RMY AI R. FORCES
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FOR
COMBAT AIR INTELLIGENCE OFFICERS .
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�RESTRICTED
WAR DEPARTMENT
HEADQUARTERS ARMY AIR FORCES
Handhooli.
for
Combat Air Intelligence Officers
This handbook, designed as a guide and reference for
combat air intelligence officers, was prepared under the
direction of the Assistant Chief of Air Staff, Intelligence,
by personnel of his office and the staff of the Army Air
Forces Air Intelligence School, Harrisburg, l'a.
SECOND EDITION
Published by
Army Air Forces Air Intelligence School
Harrisburg, Pennsylvania
MARCH, 1944
RESTRICTED
�Printed in the
United States of America
by
The Telegraph Press
Harrisburg, Pa.
�/
PREFACE
•
HEADQUARTERS OF THE ARMY AIR FORCES .
Washington, D. C.
SUBJECT: Handbook for Combat Air Intelligence Officers.
TO:
(
All Concerned.
Intelligence information, techniques and procedures, by their
very nature, are constantly changing. Much of the specific information
contained in this handbook will soon be out of date. However, the
fundamental principles it teaches will, on the whole, remain constant
and the alert S-2 will himself adapt the handbook to his changing
needs.
For the · Commanding General, Army Air Forces:
Brigadier General, U. S. Army
Assistant Chief of Air Staff,
Intelligence
3
�Table of Contents
•
PREFACE
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . • . . . . .
Paragraph Page
. . . . . .
3
I: Staff Doctrines and Functions
Definitions and General Functions of a Staff . . . .
Command Responsibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Classification of Staff Officers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Orgamzat10n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cooperation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Authority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Flexibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Staff Functions of Intelligence Officer . . . . . . . . . .
CHAPTER
II: Functions of the Intelligence Section
Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Air Intelligence in Modern War . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Types of Intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Relationship with S-3 and Other Staff Units . . . .
Relationship of Group and Squadron S-2 . . . . . .
S-2 and Combat Crews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Outline of S-2 Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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CHAPTER
III: Office Organization and A~ministration
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Office . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Records and Filing System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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CHAPTER
IV: Knowledge of the Enemy
Procuring Kn~wledge of the Enemy . . . . . . . . . .
Disseminating Information About the Enemy . . .
Components of Knowledge of the Enemy . . . . . . .
Enemy Capabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Enemy Air Order of Battle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Estimate of the Enemy Air Reaction . . . . . . . . . .
Situation and Special Defenses Maps . . . . . . . . . .
Objective Folders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Target Charts and Strips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Terrain Models ....................... ; . . . .
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3
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5
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CHAPTER
V: Knowledge of the Friendly Situation
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Liaison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dissemination of Friendly Information . . . . . . . .
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CHAPTER
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�TABLE OF CONTENTS
Paragraph Page
CHAPTER VI: Briefing
Definition and Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Time of Briefing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Facilities for Briefing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Briefing Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Preparation for Briefing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Subjects on which S-2 Briefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reconnaissance Value of Missions . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CHAPTER VII: Interrogation
General Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Priority in Interrogation .. ·................... ·
Flash News . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Interrogation Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Interrogation Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CHAPTER VIII: Reporting
Reporting .... ·. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Report Writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Types and Disposition of Reports ·. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Security of Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CHAPTER IX: Maps and Diagrams
Sco•pe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Situation Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Theater Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Enemy Air Order of Battle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Geographic Flak and Enemy Defense Maps . . . . .
Flak Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Composite Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bomb Impact Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Track Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Target Charts and Strips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CHAPTER X: Theater Indoctrination
Responsibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Indoctrination Subjects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Continuing Indoctrination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Special Indoctrination of Combat Crews . . . . . .
Special Indoctrination of Intelligence Section
Personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Instructional Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CHAPTER XI: Photo Intelligence
Capabilities of Photo Intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . .
Photo Intelligence Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Use of Photo Intelligence Reports by S-2 . . . . . . .
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�TABLE OF CONTENTS
Paragraph Page
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Bombardment Photography ................. .
Stereovision ............................... .
Scale ..................................... .
Marginal Information ...................... .
XII: Capture Intelligence
Definition ................................ .
Technical Air Intelligence .................. .
Prisoner of War Intelligence ................ .
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CHAPTER
XIII: Counterintelligence
General .................................. .
Responsibility ............................. .
Counterintelligence and Security Measures .... .
Security of Communication .................. ·
Breaches of Security ....................... .
Counter Propaganda ....................... .
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CHAPTER
XIV: Public Relations
Policy ....................................
Responsibility of S-2 .......................
General Procedure .........................
Relations with Local Population .............
Visitors ...................................
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CHAPTER
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XV: War Rooms
Definition and Function
General Procedure ......................... .
Preparation of Situation Maps ............... .
Intelligence Summaries .................... ~ .
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CHAPTER
XVI: Recognition Training
Purpose .................................. .
Progressive Training ....................... .
Preparing a Schedule ....................... .
Training Procedure ........................ .
Types of Lectures .......................... .
Training Devices .......................... .
Naval Vessels .............................. .
Armored Vehicles .......................... .
Field Balopticon ........................... .
Shadowgraph .............................. .
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3
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CHAPTER
XVII: Unit History
Authority ......................... ·........ .
Responsibility of S-2 ....................... .
Importance of the Unit History ............. .
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CHAPTER
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�TABLE OF CONTENTS
Paragraph Page
XVIII: Intelligence Functions of Higher
Echelons
Air Force ................................. .
Bomber Command ......................... .
Bomber Wing ............................. .
CHAPTER
XIX: German Air Force
Historical Development of the GAF .........
Organ1zat10n ..............................
Nomenclature and Designation ..............
GAF Aircraft Markings .....................
German Aircraft ...........................
Uniforms, Ranks and Decorations ............
GAF Personalities .........................
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CHAPTER
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XX: Japanese Air Forces
Historical Development ......... ·........... .
Operations of Japanese Air Forces ........... .
Orgamzat1on .............................. .
Identification of Aircraft .................... .
Japanese Aircraft .. : ....................... .
Ranks and Insignia ... . ..................... .
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CHAPTER
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A: Aircraft
Section I: U. S. Service Aircraft Designations . . . . . .
~PPENDIX B: Tactics
Section I: Aerial Tactics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Section II: Combat Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Section III: Tactics Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
APPENDIX C: Aircraft Armament
Section I: Types of Ammunition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Section II: Characteristics of U. S. Aircraft Armament
Section III: German Aircraft Armament . . . . . . . . . . .
Section IV: Japanese Aircraft Armament . . . . . . . . . . .
Section V: Other Aircraft Armament . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Section VI: Types of Gunsights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Section VII: Aerial Gunnery .... ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
APPENDIX D: Enemy Bombs ·
Section I: German Bombs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Section I I: Japanese Born bs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
APPENDIX E: Antiaircraft Artillery
Section
I: An tiaiFcra_ft Artillery . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Section II: German Antiaircraft Wea pons . . . . . . . . .
Section III: Japanese Antiaircraft vVeapons . . . . . . . . .
APPENDIX
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1 13
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1 16
1 17
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�TABLE OF CONTENTS
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APPENDIX
F: Radar
G: Weather
Section I: Sources of Weather Information ....... .
Section II: Contents of Weather Forecast ......... .
121
APPENDIX
APPENDIX
H: Booby Traps
123
123
124
I: Signals
Section I: International Morse Code ............ .
Section, II: Worldwide Recognition System ....... .
Section III: Semaphore Code ..................... .
Section IV: Air Ground Liaison Panel Code ....... .
Section V: Phonetic Alphabet and International Flags
and Pennan~ ..................... .
APPENDIX
APPENDIX
J:
Section
Section
APPENDIX
Camouflage) Dummies and Decoys
I: Camouflage ......................... .
II: Dummies and Decoys ................ .
K: S-2 Field Equipment
1 34
L: Armored Vehicles
Section I: Classification ........................ .
Section II: Recognition Features ................ .
Section III: Principal Currently Operational Armored
Vehicles ......................... .
Section IV: Limitations and Vulnerability
APPENDIX
M: Conversion Tables
Table
I: Units of Length ..................... .
Table II: Units of Weight ...................... .
Table III: Chinese and Japanese Units of Length and
Weight ............................. .
Table IV: Units of Area ........................ .
Table V: Units of Volume ..................... .
Table VI: Measures-Miscellaneous ............... . ·
APPENDIX
APPENDIX
N: Comparative Ranks and Grades ......... .
APPENDIX
0: Completed Staff Work ........... : ..... .. ·..
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1 43
1 43
1 43
1 44
1 44
1 44
1 45
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�(
Chapter I
STAFF DOCTRINES AND FUNCTIONS
•
Paragraph
Definitions and General Functions of a Staff ..................... .
Command Responsibility .......................... • • • • • • • • • • · · ·
Classification of Staff Officers ........................ • . • • .. • • • •
Organization .................................... • • • • • • • • • • • •
Cooperation ...................... • . • • • • • • • • · · • · · · · · · · · · · · · ·
Authority ............................. • • • • • • • • • • • • • · · · • · • · · ·
Flexibility ................................................ · · ·
Staff Functions of Intelligence Officer ....... -.................. .
1. DEFINITIONS AND GENERAL FUNCTIONS OF A STAFF. a. The staff of any air
unit consists of the officers who assist the commander in his exercise of command.
b. The staff procures and furnishes information required by the commander, prepares the
details of his plans, translates his decisions and
plans into orders, and causes such orders to be
transmitted to those affected. Within the
scope of its authority, the staff supervises the
execution of plans and orders and takes such
other action as is necessary to carry out the
commander's decisions.
c. Each staff officer must have a thorough
knowledge of the policies of his ·commander and
should_ be acquainted with subordinate commanders and their uni ts, and with the personnel
of higher, lower and adjacent units.
2. COMMAND RESPONSIBILITY. a. The
commander alone is responsible to his superior
for the performance of his unit.
b. All orders from a higher to a subordinate
unit are issued by the commander of the higher
unit to the commander of the subordinate unit.
c. In order to expedite the execution of orders
and to promote teamwork between units, a
commander may authorize his staff officers to
communicate directly with staff officers of other
units on details of orders issued or received.
3. CLASSIFICATION OF STAFF OFFICERS. a. The staffs of an Air Force or large air
unit may be subdivided into two main groups.
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(1) General staff group: Officers, ordinarily
of the General Staff Corps, and other officers
detailed as their assistants who are responsible
for the performance of command functions.
(2) Special staff group: Staff officers assigned, attached, or having duties at the headquarters, not included in the general staff group.
The special staff group includes certain technical specialists and heads of services.
b. In air units smaller than a Command, an
officer will frequently perform duties of both
general and special staff nature.
c. Personal staff or · aides as authorized by
regulations for general officers perform duties
prescribed by the general officer to whom assigned.
4. ORGANIZATION. a. Basis: The organization of a staff is based upon the duties of the
commander. Although personnel strength at
headquarters is shown in Tables of Organization, detailed assignments of personnel to sections, particularly in the general staff group,
will be made by the commander.
b. Duties. The duties of all commanders
can be divided into four principal functions:
Personnel, Intelligence, Operations and Training, Supply and Evacuation. In each duty the
commander is assisted by a specialized staff officer, known in higher echelons as A-1, A-2, A-3
and A-4; in lower echelons as S-1, S-2, S-3, S-4.
Coordinating the work of staff members, and
directly responsible to the commander, is the
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�CHAPTER I
STAFF DOCTRINES AND FUNCTIONS
chief of staff (executive, in Wings and lower
units).
c. Chief of Staff. The chief of staff, or executive, is the chief assistant and advisor to the
commander. As the principal coordinating
agent of the command, he may himself execute
the orders of the commander or he may delegate their accomplishment to other staff members.
d. Forward and Rear Echelons. In advance
areas, the staff is sometimes divided into two
echelons: Forward echelon, consisting of the
elements of the staff immediately required by
the commander for tactical operation; rear
echelon, the remainder of the staff, chiefly administrative officers.
5. COOPERATION. Teamwork is essential
within and between all sections of the general
and special staff, and between the staffs of adjacent, higher and lower units. This can be
furthered by frequent staff conferences so long
as they do not interfere with performance of
essential duties.
6. AUTHORITY. a. A staff officer as such has
no authority to command except in his own
section.
All policies, decisions and plans
whether originating with the commander or
with the staff must be authorized by the commander before they are put into effect. When
a staff officer by virtue of delegated authority
issues an order in the name of the commander,
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responsibility remains with the commander
even though he may not know of the ~rder.
b. In every command are two channels: staff
and command. Through the staff channel pass
suggestions and recommendations from one
staff officer to another. Through the command
channel pass orders of the commanding officer.
7. FLEXIBILITY. Although a staff is organized in sections, staff functions overlap; coordination and prompt interchange of information are, therefore, essential. Every staff officer
must be thoroughly conversant with the duties
of other staff officers, as at times he may be required to assist or to take over, in whole or in
part, other staff sections.
8. STAFF FUNCTIONS OF INTELLIGENCE OFFICER. a. Responsibility. The primary function of the intelligence section is to
keep the commander, and all others concerned,
informed of the enemy situation and capabilities.
b. Initiative. Immediately on assumption of
his duties, responsibility rests with the intelligence officer on his own initiative to obtain in-.
formation on every phase of the enemy situation
and capabilities. He will strive to obtain information that will answer every question on
the enemy that may arise in the commander's
mind in advance of specific requests for that
information by the commander. His duties
will not be executed properly if he awaits detailed direction from the commander as to
what information is desired.
(
�(
Chapter II
FUNCTIONS OF THE INTELLIGENCE SECTION
•
Paragraph
I
Definition ..................................... • .. . • • • • • • • • • •
2
Air Intelligence in Modern War ............................... .
3
Types of Intelligence . . ..................... . ... . ............ .
4
Relationship with S-3 and Other Staff Units . ....... .... ....... . .
5
Relationship of Group and Squadron S-2 ......... .... ... ..... . . .
6
S-2 and Combat Crews ......... ... ........ ... .. . ...... .. . . . .
7
Outline of S-2 Functions ..................................... .
1.
DEFINITION. Military intelligence is
evaluated and interpreted information concerning a possible or actual enemy (or theater of
operation). The prime function of intelligence
staffs in all echelons is to secure this information, and to provide processed intelligence in
whatever_ form is needed to assist the commander in making his decisions and the units
in accomplishing their assigned missions.
2. AIR INTELLIGENCE IN MODERN
WAR. a. Modern military aircraft, while not
changing the principles of military intelligence,
have revolutionized its technique and have tremendously increased the amount that can be
obtained. Through aerial photographs, visual
observation and combat contact, precise data
can be secured on the strength and disposition
of enemy air, ground and naval forces, installations, defenses and weapons. From these same
sources can .be gained indications of enemy
morale and discipline, and detailed information regarding enemy industrial production and
transportation facilities. Information obtained
by modern aerial methods, supplementing that
acquired from ground reconnaissance, wireless
interception, prisoner of war interrogation,
espionage, technical air intelligence, etc., has
provided invaluable knowledge of enemy air
and ground capabilities.
b. It is a function of the intelligence section
to convert into military intelligence the unprocessed and disorganized information gained
from all sources.
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c. Air intelligence can be either strategic
tactical and is disseminated accordingly.
01
(1) Air intelligence of a strategic nature-the enemy's strength, disposition and capabili
ties-is basic for the formulation of strategy and
the planning of campaigns; it must be con
veyed to the commander and higher echelons.
(2) Air intelligence of a tactical naturethe enemy's immediate defenses, weapons, tactics, air equipment, morale, skill-is essential
in determining the conduct and tactics oi
specific missions and combats. This information is disseminated not only to the commander
and higher echelons, but also to the combat
crews in the unit. S-2's value to his crews is
measured directly by the amount and the accuracy of information he supplies.
3. TYPES OF INTELLIGENCE. a. In
lower echelons, intelligence activities are divided
into operational intelligence, counterintelligence and administration. Operational intelligence may be subdivided as follows:
(1) Combat intelligence: Military intelligence produced by S-2's in the field and by
the military intelligence section of GHQ and
all _subordinate units. As the term is used in
this handbook, it refers principally to intelligence derived from combat contact with, and
reconnaissance of, the enemy.
(2) Photo inteHigence:
Intelligence derived from interpretation of aerial photographs
combined with other information pertaining
13
�CHAPTER II
to the installations appearing on. the photographs examined.
(3) Capture intelligence: Intelligence derived from captured enemy personnel, documents and materiel.
b. In the field, S-2 is concerned principally
with collecting, interpreting, evaluating and disseminating information, though he may have
to devote a great part of his time to other intelligence duties such as indoctrination, photo
intelligence, counterintelligence (both security
and censorship) and public relations.
4. RE LAT I O N S H I P WITH S-3 AND
OTHER STAFF UNITS. a. S-2 must always
remember that the information he produces has
no use whatsoever except as an aid to military
operations. He must, therefore, always work
in closest possible conjunction with S-3 and
must himself know and understand S-3's problems as well as the purpose, equipment, and
limitations of the combat units of his organization.
b. It is necessary also that S-2 work in close
liaison with S-1 and S-4.
5. RELATIONSHIP OF GROUP AND
SQUADRON S-2. a. There is variance in the
size of the units best adapted to intelligence
operations. In some theaters the preferred air
unit for intelligence is the group; in which case
the squadron S-2 becomes, in effect, an assistant
gr~up S-2, although still retaining his assignment to his squadron. In other theaters, where
squadrons operate individually from isolated
positions, the squadron is the basic unit. In
general, but by no means under all circumstances, greater efficiency is obtained if the
group is the basic unit, in which case numerous
duplications, inevitable when squadrons operate separately, are eliminated.
b. In this handbook, the group unit . is assumed. However, the principles of group procedure apply equally to a squadron if operating separately.
6. S-2 AND COMBAT CREWS. The ef, fectiveness of the S-2 section depends largely
upon the extent to which S-2 officers develop
and maintain cordial relations with combat
crew personnel. Successful interrogation of exhausted and nerve-racked crews returning from
missions can hardly be expected in the absence
of friendly relations. Further, it is established
14
FUNCTIONS OF THE INTELLIGENCE SECTION
that intelligence information of the highest
order is often not revealed during formal interrogation but comes out later ai the crews
talk at mess, in the clubrooms and in quarters.
If S-2 does not partake of the daily life of his
crews, he will fail to obtain information which
is disclosed in the off-duty talk of combat personnel. To promote and retain essential harmony between S-2 and members of his crews,
it is recommended that where possible S-2 share
living quarters with the flying personnel of his
unit rather than occupy separate quarters or
live with other ground officers.
7. OUTLINE OF S-2 FUNCTIONS. a. Combat Intelligence.
(1) Knowledge of the enemy. (For full
discussion see Chapter IV, Knowledge of the
Enemy.) T'he primary responsibility of S-2 is
to procure all :knowledge of the enemy, maintain it up-to-date, furnish it to his commander,
to higher and adjacent units, and to his own
crews.
(2) Briefing for a mission. (For full discussion see Chapter VI, Briefing.) S-2 is responsible for compiling intelligence information necessary for briefing combat crews on
all phases of the enemy situation. In addition, and depending on local practice, his responsibility in briefing may include route, operational details, weather and signals. He is
usually responsible for arrangement of maps,
charts and all physical equipment of the briefing
room or tent.
(3) Interrogation after, a mission. (For full
discussion see Chapter VII, Interrogation.)
S-2 is responsible for interrogating combat
crews after a mission and obtaining from them
information on the entire operation.
(4) Reporting on the mission. (For full
discussion see Chapter VIII, Reporting.) S-2
is charged with compiling and forwarding to
higher headquarters the report of the combat
mission and related combat activities.
(5) Liaison with supporting units. (For full
discussion see Chapter V, Knowledge of the
Friendly Situation.) S-2 may be responsible for
maintaining liaison with supporting and adjacent units, both air and ground, for the
reciprocal exchange of intelligence.
b. Adniinistr~tio~ of th~ S-2 s'ection. (See
Chapter in, Office Organization and Administration.)
�CHAPTER II
( 1) Personnel. Intelligence section will
maintain its own personnel records and efficiency reports and will make suitable recommendations for promotions. In some units S-2
has the duty of maintaining combat records of
individual crew members and keeping combat
information on which recommendations for
awards are based. Recommendations for awards
are a function of S-1, but S-2, having knowledge
of the act, should either notify the commander
and S-1 informally, or should actually write the
proposed citation.
(2) Maps, Aeronautical Charts, Air Route
Guides. S-2 is responsible for obtaining all
maps, guides, and charts needed by the commander and staff for operational purposes.
(3) Filing and Storage. S-2 is responsible
for the proper filing, storage and security of all
material in the section, including correspondence, enemy and target information, maps, supplies, purses, escape kits, and other intelligence
equipment.
(4) Typing and clerical work. S-2 is responsible for the correspondence and clerical
work of his section.
(5) Drafting necessary to the S-2 Section,
particularly in relationship to maps, target data,
reports and the annotation of aerial photographs, will be done within the section.
(6) Supplies and Equipment. S-2 will
requisition supplies needed by his section and
maintain a constant check on their adequacy.
(7) Maintenance of situation room. (See
Chapter III, Knowledge of the Enemy and
Chapter XV, War Rooms.) S-2 will have charge
of placing and arranging intelligence material
and displays in the alert room or situation
room. Usually he will have full responsibility
for organizing and maintaining the room itself.
(8) Maintenance of war diary. S-2 may be
charged with maintenance of the unit history or
war diary, which is the official documentation
of the unit's activities.
c. Theater Indoctrination. (For full discussion see Chapter X, Theater Indoctrination.)
( 1) Theater indoctrination for all personnel of the unit, including replacements, is
usually the duty of S-2. It will include:
(a) Air raid discipline and local air raid
rules.
(b) Security intelligence and theater regulations on security and censorship.
FUNCTIONS OF THE INTELLIGENCE SECTION
( c) Customs of, and courtesies to, local
population.
( d) Flying regulations in the theater and
details of theater defenses.
( e) Allied military forces in the theater,
including organization, ranks, uniforms, procedures.
(f) Enemy mi1itary forces, including organization, ranks, uniforms, equipment, tactics.
(g) Special subjects, such as health precautions, geography, communications, and other
matters pertinent to the theater.
(2) Periodic instruction. At reasonable intervals S-2 will continue training all personnel
by delivering or arranging lectures on special
subjects, including:
(a) Aircraft, naval and armored vehicle
recognition.
(b) Recognition of enemy uniform and
rank.
( c) Current even ts.
( d) Combat experiences.
(e) Evasion and escape.
(3) Special indoctrination of combat crews.
S-2 periodically will provide special indoctrination for combat crews. He will emphasize
target identification, enemy air tactics, defenses,
and prisoner of war procedure.
(4) Special indoctrination of intelligence
personnel. S-2 will instruct intelligence personnel on such subjects as:
(a) Principles of interrogation.
(b) Enemy air tactics.
( c) Friendly tactics and formations.
(d) Interpretation of maps, photographs,
bomb impact plots.
(e) Aerial gunnery and equipment.
(f) Principles of combat intelligence.
(g) Security of information.
d. Photo Intelligence. (For full discussion
see Chapter XI, Photo Intelligence.)
( 1) Photo interpretation. Although the
combat intelligence officer is not expected to
serve as photo interpreter, and usually will
have an interpreter in the intelligence section,
a knowledge of photo interpretation is necessary in order to:
(a) Supervise the work of the photo intelligence officer; or
(b) Make necessary spot photo analyses
for combat purposes in the absence of a photo
intelligence officer.
(2) In the absence of a photographic
officer, S-2 will have responsibility for operation
15
�CHAPTER II
of the aerial photographic equipment and photo
laboratory of the unit.
e. Counterintelligence. (For full discussion
see Chapter XIII, Counterintelligence.) In the
absence of a specially designated counterintelligence or security officer, S-2 is responsible for
counterintelligence and security in his unit.
( 1) The counterintelligence officer is responsible for:
(a) Preparation and supervision of Unit
Security Plan, including counter-espionage,
counter-sabotage, secrecy and deceptive measures, guarding of documents, materiel and installations, and all preventive and investigative
measures necessary to the maintenance of unit
security.
(b) Counterintelligence measures set forth
in FM 30-25, including restrictions on the
preparation and use of documents, signal communication security, precautions in the movements of troops and individuals, regulation of
the act1v1t1es of newspaper correspondents,
photographers, radio news commentators . and
visitors, unit censorship, and counter propaganda.
( c) Instruction of all unit personnel in
the maintenance of security (AR 380-5 "Safeguardmg Military Information.")
(d) Employment of Counter Intelligence
Corps personnel attached to the unit.
16
FUNCTIONS OF THE INTELLIGENCE SECTION
(2) The counterintelligence officer advises
the commander and appropriate staff officers
concerning:
(a) V nit defense plan.
( b) Camouflage
and concealment of
squadron equipment and installations; maintenance of camouflage discipline.
( c) V tilization of dummies and decoys.
( d) Dispersal of unit equipment, installations, and personnel.
f. Public Relations. (For full discussion see
Chapter XIV, Public Relations.) S-2 will be responsible for:
( 1) Mission news.
(a) News reports to higher echelons.
(b) Press releases.
(2) Reception of prominent visitors.
(3) Relations with local population.
g. Capture Intelligence. (For full discussion
see Chapter XII, Capture Intelligence.) S-2
will not interrogate captured enemy air personnel or attempt to analyze captured enemy
documents and crashed enemy air equipment.
He is responsible, however, for the initial segregation of prisoners; for safeguarding them, their
documents and materiel, prior to examination
by qualified personnel. He will notify headquarters without delay whenever enemy personnel or materiel are captured.
�(
Chapter III
OFFICE ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION
•
Paragraph
General
Personnel ............ . ..... . ....................... . ..... . . .
Equipment ................................................. .
. ".i, ,office . .... .. .. ..... . ................................. •· ... . .. .
Records and Filing System ... . . . . . . . ..... ... . . . ....... . .. . . . . .
1. GENERAL.
The office of the S-2 may
-range from a desert dugout or tent in the
tropics to a comfortable villa; his combat personnel may v~ry from a squadron of fighter
pilots to crews of heavy bombers. Because of
this divergence, it is impossible to prescribe the
most desirable procedure for organizing and
administering an S-2 office. Regardless of its
location or type of unit, the office must, however, be organized for the basic functions of
briefing and interrogation, maintaining the intelligence situation and providing information
about the enemy.
2. PERSONNEL. a. The ideal staff in any
S-2 office would be composed of officers and
enlisted men who are specialists, yet capable of
taking over any work of the section if called
upon to do so. While this ideal can seldom be
attained, there are certain minimum personnel
requirements for every S-2 office:
(1) At least two men capable of carrying on
each duty and function of the section.
(2) All officers able to brief and interrogate; prepare flash, mission, periodic and summary reports; post friendly and enemy air. ground situation maps; maintain enemy air
order of battle; maintain unit war diary.
(3) All enlisted men able to maintain intelligence journal, post friendly and enemy airground situation maps; keep records and files.
b. In selecting personnel, S-2 should be on the
alert for competent enlisted men. Those with
college training and typing ability are desirable.
Those with special skill in mapping, drafting,
editing, or with knowledge of the foreign Ian-
I
2
3
4
5
Page
17
17
17
18
19
guage of Allied units in the area should prove
particularly valuable.
3. EQUIPMENT. a. Professional equipment
needed for S-2 work is set forth in Technical
Order 00-30-140. This equipment is drawn
through group or squadron supply officer, and
ordinarily is furnished the unit during its operational training.
b. Additional necessary equipment not listed
in Technical Order 00-30-140 includes desks,
tables, filing cabinets, typewriters, chairs, lockers, easels or screens, duplicating equipment
(preferably mimeograph). Designs for field
balopticon and shadowgraph are contained in
Chapter XVI, Recognition Training. Training and display material _is desirable: photographs, posters, silhouettes, models of airplanes,
ships and armored vehicles. Reference publications are invariably in demand and a dictionary of enemy language, including air terms,
is most useful. S-2 should have as complete
a collection of field and technical manuals as
possible, especially those of the "1" and "30"
series, and all pertinent intelligence bulletins
and publications.
c. Since limitations of travel sometimes prevent S-2 from carrying all he wants, he must
select what is essential. The following are suggestions deserving first priority:
(1) F-2 kit. (Photo interpreter's kit.)
(2) Note pads and typing paper, map overlay paper, and a supply of forms used in reporting, interrogation and intelligence procedure.
Grease pencils and plasticele or cellulose acetate for overlays are ever in demand, and
17
�CHAPTER Ill
OFFICE ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION
usually difficult to obtain. (S-2 should acquire
an adequate supply.)
(3) Mission, target and theater maps. (Best
carried in a tubular case. Cylindrical containers
for antiaircraft searchlight carbons or for parachute flares make handy cases.)
(4) Portable map board. Thumb tacks with
different colored heads. Red, blue, green, yellow
string. Portable blackboard and chalk. Hammer, screw-driver, pliers and stapler.
· (5) Only slightly less necessary than the
items listed above is a field desk or a small
locker which can serve as a desk or table and
which should contain folders, files, reference
material, extra mapping and overlay paper.
d. This basic equipment must be with S-2 at
all times. It comprises the tools of his trade and
without it he cannot do his job. In some hurried departure he may be forced to abandon his
personal belongings, but he must never leave
his basic S-2 equipment.
4. OFFICE. a. Ideally, the S-2 section would
have several rooms. Most important is the situation room with postings of friendly and enemy
air-ground situation, enemy order of battle, special defense and theater maps, reports, photographs, reading matter, displays and training
materials. The situation room is the center of
intelligence operations and deserves most careful
planning, equipping, and constant revision to
keep it current and attractive. It must be full
of information about the enemy and enemy air
combat. Reading tables and easy chairs should
be provided. There should be clear, attractive
and interesting displays: maps, target photographs, p·ictures of equipment, reports, diagrams, latest information on the enemy, and,
especially, pictures of target damage done by the
unit on its recent operations, and the air combat
box score of the unit's flying personnel.
b. Briefing room, large enough for briefing all
crews at one time, with facilities for map display and balopticon projection.
c. Individual interrogation rooms, each large
enough for a single crew.
d. Office for intelligence personnel, their files
and equipment.
e. In certain -situations it may be preferable
or necessary, because of limited space, to combine the situation room with the briefing room,
briefing directly from the situation map and
other maps specially prepared.
18
f. Whether S-2 has a number of comfortable
rooms or only a hutment, he should do his
utmost to maintain intelligence displays and
reading matter for his crews. The following is
a check list:
(1) Detailed situation map of the immediate theater.
(2) Situation maps of various fronts.
(3) Naval maps.
(4) Intelligence teletype reports.
(5) Latest news reports and daily news
bulletin.
(6) Pertinent reports, bulletins and special studies from higher and Allied headquarters.
(7) Enem-y radar map.
(8) Enemy flak map.
(g) Diagrams of enemy aircraft attacks.
(10) Box score of enemy aircraft destroyed;
leading pilots, gunners, etc.
(u) Home defense map; free bombing
areas, beacons, etc.
(12) Photographs of enemy decoys and
dummies.
Stereo views and stereoscope.
Bomb impact plots.
Security posters.
First aid display.
Training posters.
Display of escape aids.
(19) Escape literature.
(20) Identification training devices; peepboxes, shadowgraphs, projectors.
(2 1) Ship, airplane and armored vehicle
pictures and models.
(22) Displays of enemy and friendly equipment.
(23) Recognition publications.
(24) Aviation publications, official and unofficial.
(25) Pertinent field and technical manuals.
(26) Scrapbook and photo album of unit
activities.
(13)
( 14)
(15)
( 16)
( 17)
(18)
(27) Newspapers, news and fiction magazines, cartoons, sketches.
g. Since some of the material listed above will
be classified, a duty officer or enlisted man
should be present whenever the situation
room is open for use, making sure that only
authorized personnel enter. When not in use,
the room must be adequately secured.
�CHAPTER Ill
(
OFFICE ORGANIZATION AND .ADMINISTRATION
5. RECORDS AND FILING SYSTEM. a.
The records and filing system of an S-2 Office
will vary with the theater of operations and
the type of unit, but the following will serve
as a check list.
·
b. Administrative Files.
( 1) Orders from higher headquarters.
(2) Correspondence.
(3) Receipts for classified material.
(4) Certificates of destruction of classified
material.
(5) Reports: Mission reports, special periodical reports, etc.
(6) Forms.
c. Informational Files.
(1) Intelligence publications.
(2) Aircraft identification material.
(3) Training text material.
(4) Maps and aeronautical charts.
(5) Tactical bulletins, etc.
(6) Objective folders, target charts and
photographs.
(7) Intelligence summaries and reports
from higher headquarters.
(8) Enemy order of battle.
d. Records.
(1) S-2 Journal-chronological record of
daily occurrences.
(2) Cumulative index of information-subject index to informational files.
(3) Squadron diary-unit history.
(4) Combat records.
(5) Secret operational intelligence records
- data on restricted flying zones, etc.
(6) Training program records-completed
and proposed.
f
19
�Chapter IV.
l(NOWLEDGE OF THE ENEMY
•
Paragraph
Procuring Knowledge of the Enemy ........................... .
I
20
20
21
22
22
22
22
Disseminating Information About the Enemy . . ... .. ......... .. .. . .
Components of Knowledge of the Enemy ...................... .
Enemy Capabilities ...................................... ... .
Enemy Air Order of Battle ............ ............ ..... ..... . .
Estimate of the Enemy Air Reaction ............ ...... .... ·..... .
Situation and Special Defenses Maps ......... .... ............. .
Objective Folders .......................................... .
Target Charts and Strips ............................ . .. .. . . .. .
2
3
9
23
Terrain Models ......................... . ............... . ... .
fo
24
1. PROCURING KNOWLEDGE OF THE
ENEMY. a. In procuring knowledge of the
enemy, S-2 has almost unlimited sources of intelligence, but he is dependent principally on
the sources listed below:
(1) Higher Headquarters-Air Force, Command and Wing.
(a) Enemy Air Order of Battle. (Described in par. 5 below.)
(b) Objective folders and target information. (Described in pars. 8 and g below.)
( c) Periodic summaries of enemy activity.
( d) Tactical reports-summaries of enemy
air, ground and naval tactics.
(e) Technical reports on enemy equipment.
(f) Prisoner of war reports.
(g) Photo intelligence reports.
(h) Special reports-information derived
from espionage, communication intercepts, special studies, etc.
(2) Liaison-Adjacent U. S. and Allied
Air, Ground, and Naval Units. (See Chapter V,
Knowledge of the Friendly Situation.)
(3) Combat Crews. (Information of the
enemy brought back by combat crews is discussed in Chapter VII, Interrogation. Information brought back by cameras is discussed
in Chapter XI, Photo Intelligence.)
(4) Communication Interception. Infor-
20 .
Page
4
5
6
7
8
23
mation on enemy orders and dispositions can
be gained by intercepting his communications.
Although systematic listening-in on enemy
radio channels can best be done by higher
headquarters, in certain cases enemy low-power
transmitters are audible only to front-line
listeners.
2. DISSEMINATING INFORMATION
ABOUT THE ENEMY. a. While S-2 should
be the encyclopedia of enemy knowledge, he
must not be its repository. S-2's continuous duty
is not only to get information, but to pass it
on. His knowledge of the enemy is useless unless it is given to higher echelons, to his combat crews, and to adjacent units, particularly
ground units. Nothing should impede the dissemination of intelligence. Under exceptional
circumstances dissemination may justify even
a violation of security, and qualification of the
law of accuracy. If security retards the flow of
essential information that is needed immediately, then security for the moment must be ignored. And while accuracy is always the prime
requisite, there may be occasions of exceptional
urgency when S-2 cannot delay to determine the accuracy of his information. At these
rare times when speed is paramount, he must
send with his information a full indication of
its source, the circumstances of his obtaining it,
and the possibility of its inaccuracy.
�CHAPTER IV
b. Dissemination:
(
(1) Commander and Staff, There is no
prescribed method for S-2's keeping his commander constantly informed of the enemy situation. The methods will depend upon the
commander's wishes and S-2's own industry.
(2) Combat Crews. If the intelligence
office has sufficiently attractive contents and if
S-2's knowledge about th·e enemy is exact, the
problem of getting intelligence to the crews will
solve itself. Flying personnel are eager to absorb all possible information about the enemy.
If S-2 has that information they will seek him
out; but if his treasury of intelligence is empty,
out-of-date, inaccurate or not pertinent to the
crew's mission, no amount of knowledge of how
to win friends and influence people, no amount
of high-pressure salesmanship will hold the attention of flying personnel. Pilots, bombardiers,
navigators and gunners want facts, not personal charm or glib talk: their lives depend on
facts.
(3) Adjacent Units (See Chapter V, Knowledge of the Friendly Situation.) S-2 must
keep adjacent supporting U. S. and Allied
air, ground and naval units thoroughly informed of his knowledge of the enemy in their
particular areas. No rule can be laid down instructing S-2 how to obtain essential liaison with
supporting units. The fundamental requisite is
that S-2 realize the importance of such liaison
and that he take the initiative to establish it.
3. COMPONENTS OF KNOWLEDGE OF
THE ENEMY. a. It is impossible for S-2 to
know too much about the enemy, even on subjects so removed, seemingly, from tactical utility
as the history of the enemy nation, the personal
traits of its military and political leaders, the
educational standards of its population or
its national system of currency, weights and
measures.
b. While no list of subjects on which S-2
should be informed can be inclusive, he must
have exact information about the followin~
subjects:
(1) Enemy Air Forces. (See Chapt~r XIX,
German Air Force and Chapter XX, Japanese
Air Forces.)
(2) Enemy Airdromes. S-2 must know the
exact location of all enemy airdromes within
range of his unit and the type and estimated
number of aircraft operating from each; He
KNOWLEDGE OF THE ENEMY
must know the terrain characteristics, nm~]:}~
of runways, dimensions, "operational status, facilities of the fields, and the nature of air operations conducted from them.
(3) Enemy Aircraft. S-2 must know the
flying characteristics of all enemy aircraft likely
to oppose his unit-their range, ceiling, speed,
rate of climb, wing span, length of fuselage,
bomb load, firepower, equipment, vulnerability,
endurance, offensive and defensive capabilities.
He should know the location of enemy airqaft
factories, their rate of production and the total
number of planes currently available to th~
enemy.
(4) Enemy Air Tactics. S-2 must be able t;
lead ~iscussions of enemy air combat tactics, including offensive and defensive tactics.
(See
Appendix B for sample report on air tactics.)
(5) Enemy Aircraft Detection System. S-2
must have detailed knowledge of the enemy's
aircraft detection and warning system, its capabilities and limitations. He must be able to
suggest most effective counter-measures to
evade, deceive, or minimize its usefulness. (See
Appendix F for general principles of radar.)
(6) Enemy Antiaircraft and Searchlights.
S-2 must know the location, strength, range,
firepower, accuracy, method of operation and
range of lethal burst of enemy antiaircraft artillery and automatic weapons. He must also
have knowledge of enemy searchlights and
their coordination with flak. He will cooperate
with S-3 in making deductions on the most
effective evasive and offensive measures. (See
Appendix E for general discussion of antiaircraft.)
(7) Enemy Barrage Balloons. S-2 must
know the location, type, number, and general
characteristics of enemy barrage balloons and
the maximum height and normal height at
which they are flown. He should be able to
suggest measures for their avoidance and their
destruction.
(8) Enemy Decoys, Dummies, Camouflage,
Smoke Screens. S-2 must know the location and
characteristics of major dummies, decoys, and
camouflaged installations. He must know the
enemy's typical deceptive technique and be able
to suggest counter measures. (See Appendix J
for a discussion of camouflage, dummies and
decoys.)
(g) Targets. S-2 must know the major
enemy targ-ets his unit is likely to attack. He
21
�CHAPTER IV
should be able to point out their importance,
their vulnerability, defenses, and means of identification. Regular instruction of pilot.3, bombardiers and navigators in target identification
is of primary importance. It is the responsibility of S-2 to provide the necessary maps,
material and information, and to cooperate
with the group bombardier and navigator in
conducting such classes. Know ledge of targets
includes knowledge of best routes and axes of
approach.
4. ENEMY CAPABILITIES. The sum of
S-2's knowledge is his estimate of the enemy\
capabilities-the defensive or offensive actions
open to the enemy and his ability to carry them
out. It is S-2's duty to enumerate the enemy .,
-potentialities; he must never attempt to prophesy or predict what the enemy "intends" to do.
5. ENEMY AIR ORDER OF BATTLE. a.
Enemy Air Order of Battle is a list of enemy
air combat units, their identification, type,
equipment! location, strength, serviceability and
operations. This basic knowledge of the enemy
is of the utmost value to all echelons of command, from the highest to the lowest. From
it, conclusions with respect to enemy capabilities can be derived. While Air Order of Battle
usually is compiled by Air Force headquarters,
the S-2 should maintain an Air Order of Battle
of at least all enemy units within striking range
of the aircraft of his own organization. (See
Chapter IX, Maps and Diagrams, for possible
methods of posting this information.)
b. A complete Enemy Air Order of Battle
will include the following information about
enemy air forces:
(1) Identification of specific units (down
as far as squadron where possible) will be
based on various items of information such a5
aircraft markings, unit insignia, etc.
(2) Type of unit (bomber, single-engine
fighter, etc.)
(3) Type of equipment (with respect to
aircraft whether bombers, twin-engine fighters,
etc., their performance, armament and tactics;
items of air equipment.)
(4) .Location of units (detailed disposition of all units).
(5) Strength and serviceability (Initial
Equipment, I.E.; Immediate Reserve, LR.; as
well as actual strength and serviceability.)
(6) Operations (type of operations engaged in, names and qualifications of command-
22
KNOWLEDGE OF THE ENEMY
ing officers, combat efficiency of pilots and
crews).
c. Enemy Air Order of Battle comes from
many and varied sources, the chief of which are:
(1) prisoners of war, (2) wireless interception,
(3) photographic reconnaissance and interpretation, (4) friendly combat crews, (5)
ground agents, (6) crashed enemy aircraft, (7)
enemy press and radio, and (8) captured documents.
6. ESTIMATE OF THE ENEMY AIR REACTION. S-2 should be able to make an
"Estimate of Enemy Air Reaction." This term
is narrower and more specific than an estimate
of enemy capabilities: it refers solely to the
enemy's air power and his capabilities against a
projected operation.
7. SITUATION AND SPECIAL DEFENSES
MAPS. a. The most readily understood device
for portraying the enemy's capabilities is a situation map, on which all pertinent enemy information is entered and revised constantly. It
is advisable for S-2 and S-3 to maintain a joint
intelligence-operations map, or, if this cannot
be done, to keep their respective situation maps
near each other. (See Chapter IX, par. 2, for
further discussion of situation maps.)
b. Where possible, S-2 and S-3 should also
join in maintaining:
(1) A strategic situation map showing enemy territory and that portion of friendly territory within reach of hostile aircraft. The map
should indicate:
(a) Major elements of enemy ground and
naval forces.
(b) Major elements of friendly ground
and naval forces.
(c) Line dividing territory under enemy
and friendly control.
( d) Strategic Bomb Line. (See Chapter ·
VI, par. 6.)
(e) Location of friendly airdromes and
identification of units operating from them; location of friendly landing strips.
(!) Location of enemy -airdromes and
identiqcation of type and size of units operating
from them.
(g) Location of enemy barrage balloons.
(h) Location of enemy antiaircraft artil lery. (Range circles posted on master target
chart.)
(i) Area or zone covered by enemy radar.
�CHAPTER IV
(
(j) Radius of action of enemy aircraft.
(k) Area or zone covered by friendly aircraft warning net. (Radio and visual aids to
navigation.)
(l) Friendly aids to navigation.
(m) Friendly restricted flying areas.
(n) Targets for air attack, identified by
their objective folder number.
(2) A tactical map covering a more limited
area and showing the tactical situation. It
should give detailed information about targets,
routes, flak, recent raids, etc. If a unit is engaged, for example, chiefly in ground-air support, the tactical map would emphasize the
ground situation and keep current all changes
in the tactical bomb line.
8. OBJECTIVE FOLDERS (Similar compilations prepared by U. S. Navy and Royal Air
Force are known as target folders.) a. An important source of information for S-2 is the
objective folder, a compilation of intelligence
on important targets in a given area. The type
of folder prepared by AC/ AS, Intelligence, contains:
(1) A system of identification. Each country is assigned a number and is divided into
numbered objective areas. Targets within a
country are numbered in an endless series.
For example, 90.30.757 might describe Japan
(go), Kure (30), Tojo Oil Refinery (757).
(2) A map section which includes:
(a) Map of the objective area.
(b) Key map or index map of all objective areas in the region.
(c) Topographic map.
( d) Large scale maps of target concentration areas.
( e) Large-scale sketches or diagrams of
harbors, airports and other important targets
within the areas.
(3) Photographic section supplementing the
maps.
(4) Text, which comprises:
(a) Evaluation of the area; economic and
strategic significance; defenses and vulnerability.
(b) Tabulation and review of target information; target numbers; target names; positions by coordinates; description and significance of targets; references to target chart on
which the target is located.
(5) Weather data.
(6) Index of available charts of targets
within the objective area.
KNOWLEDGE OF THE ENEMY
(7) Current information regarding smoke
screens, decoys and dummies, enemy defenses
such as flak and searchlights, or references to
sources of such current information.
b. The objective folder or any part thereof
will not be taken into the air on combat miisions. For operational purposes, copies of air
photographs of the objective and target maps
will be carried into the air. It is the responsibility of S-2 to prepare navigators' and bombardiers' kits containing such material.
c. Objective folders are usually, but not always, compiled in Air Force headquarters having a wide range of collecting agencies; but
lower echelons are expected to forward all
strategic information for inclusion in subsequent objective folders.
d. Information contained in objective folders
must be checked by intelligence in the field,
particularly through photo reconnaissance, to
make certain that data used is the latest available.
g. TARGET CHARTS AND STRIPS. a.
Target charts provide S-2 with further knowledge of the enemy. They are designed primarily to assist crews in recognizing their
targets. (See Chapter IX, par. 10 and Figures
1-7.) They vary in type, but usually contain
a general map of the target and its environs,
known as the "approach chart" (scale of about
1: 125,000) and a detailed specific target map
known as "recognition chart" (scale of about
I: 10,000 to 1 :30,000).
b. Target approach charts, _drawn in oblique
and foreshortened, show approaches from all
angles so that crew members will have a map
portraying the terrain from the same angle of
approach and in approximately the same perspective as seen from the air.
c. Target strips are single sheets usually containing:
(1) A map of the general target area.
(2) A sketch map, in larger scale, of the
immediate target area, showing installations,
buildings, etc., in detail.
, (3) A vertical photograph covering exactly
the same immediate target area covered by
the sketch map. (See Figure 1, page 57.)
d. Target charts and strips are carried in the
air on missions by members of the combat crews.
e. Like objective folders, target charts and
strips usually are supplied to S-2 by higher head-
�CHAPTER IV
quarters. In some areas, however, S-2 may find
himself without these vital materials and will
be obliged to provide pilots and combat crew~
with equivalent data in the most usable form
he can devise.
10. TERRAIN MODELS.
Terrain models
are sometimes provided by higher headquarters
for troop carrier units on paratroop attacks,
amphibious forces and their supporting air
24
KNOWLEDGE OF THE ENEMY
units on special operations; sometimes, too, such
models are used when ordinary combat crews are
briefed for a mission against some exceptionally important target. Terrain models usually
are constructed in color from vertical photographs and show the exact, detailed features
of the terrain including works of man. (Some
units in the field have made excellent models
out of sand and glue.)
�(
Chapter V
l(NOWLEDGE OF THE FRIENDLY SITUATION
•
Paragraph
I
General
2
Liaison .. .. ... . .......... .... . ... . . . ....... ... .. • • • • • • • • • • • • • ·
3
Dissemination of Friendly Information ... ..... ....... . .. . . ..... . .
1. GENERAL.
In addition to complete
knowledge of the enemy, S-2 must know the
strength, disposition and capabilities of his own
forces, including:
a. Terrain in friendly hands: geography,
topography, installations, landmarks.
b. Our own and Allied Order of Battle in the
theater; location of our own and allied units,
airfields, landing strips, supply channels, dumps.
c. Exact location of our front line, including
outposts. Upon this information our strategic
and tactical bomb lines are established. Incomplete or inaccurate information may result
in casual ties to our <?Wn forces, inflicted by our
0vvn aircraft. Besides a knowledge of the immediate situation, S-2 must keep conversant
with prospective movements of our own and
Allied ground, air and naval units.
d. Communications net of the theater: telephone, teletype, radio, beacons, flight control.
Page
25
25
25
S-2 must be fully informed of the se~urity of
each communication channel.
2. LIAISON. a. An Army Liaison Officer
(A.LO.) may be assigned to the unit to furnish
information of friendly ground units, their dispositions and probable movements, and to cooperate in maintaining the situation map and
daily bomb line. Where there is no A.LO., S-2
must, on his own initiative, obtain this informal ion by setting up or improvising workable
liaison with supporting and adjacent air and
ground units.
3. DISSEMINATION OF FRIENDLY INFORMATION. Regardless of higher headquarters' obligation to transmit information
about our own ground, naval and air forces,
S-2 's crews and his own direct liaisons with adjacent ground forces often bring him information about friendly movements which he must
disseminate directly and immediately to adjacent
and higher units of our own and Allied forces.
25
�Chapter VI
(
BRIEFING '
•
Paragraph
Definition and Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I
Time of Briefing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2
Facilities for Briefing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
Briefing Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4
Preparation for Briefing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5
Subjects on Which S-2 Briefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 6
7
Reconnaissance Value of Missions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. DEFINITION AND PURPOSE. a. Briefing is the organized presentation of information,
wJ::iich has been processed into mission intelligence, to air crews prior to their departing
on a mission.
b. Purpose of briefing is to give crews information that will enable them to accomplish
the mission and return safely.
2. TIME OF BRIEFING. In heavy bombardment, anti-submarine, troop carrier and
other units where missions are planned in advance, briefing should commence from three to
three and one-half hours before take-off. In
fighter and air support units, necessity for a
quick take-off may make formal briefing impossible; but when there is no cause for hurry, it
is advisable to allow ample time between briefing and take-off to enable crews to confer, to
mark their maps and charts properly, and to
assemble personal flying equipment. The time
between briefing and take-off, however, should
never be so great as to permit informati~n to
leak to the enemy.
3. FACILITIES FOR BRIEFING. a. Briefing
room should be large enough to seat all combat
personnel. It should be well-lighted, but so
prepared that it can be darkened for projection.
b. Equipment should include large-scale maps,
aeronautical charts of friendly and enemy territory, perspective target charts and landfall
strips, all prominently mounted near a platform from which briefing officers may speak.
c. Complete reference material should be
included in files. Special reports on enemy in-
26
Page
26
26
26
26
27
29
30
stallations such as runways, revetments, ammunition, gasoline and supply dumps, personnel areas, smoke screens, dummies and decoys,
balloon barrages, flak and searchlight positions
and other data should be easily available.
d. Equipment should include a balopticon
(epidiascope) and screen for projecting, on as
large a scale as possible, maps and photographs
of the target area and identifying landmarks;
it should include a portable blackboard and
facilities for collecting personal belongings of
combat crews and for distribution of pilots',
bombardiers' and navigators' kits, pouches and
escape kits.
4. BRIEFING PROCEDURE. a. The commander may prefer to conduct the entire briefing himself, relying on his staff to f1:1r!].ish him
the necessary information. Frequently, however,
the commander opens the briefing, announces
the objective and comments generally on the
mission; then other staff officers, including S-2,
brief on specific phases of the operation. In
some units S-2 may be called upon to conduct
the entire briefing, supplemented by additional
comments from the flight leader.
b. Typical procedure in bomber unit:
( 1) Commander opens the briefing, announces the mission and, in a large operation,
discusses the part the unit is to take.
(2) Commander or S-3 explains the operational plan: timing, taxi and take-off procedure, formations, other units participating,
escort, rendezvous, method and altitude of attack, routes to and from the target, etc.
�BRIEFING
CHAPTER VI
(
(3) S-2 briefs on special subjects. (Details
of S-2 briefing are given in paragraph 6.)
(4) Communications officer briefs on radio
procedure and reviews perrinent signal instructions.
(5) Unit navigator discusses route out and
back.
(6) Weather officer and, possibly, ordnance officer brief on their specialities.
(7) Commander summarizes.
(-8) After the general briefing, special briefings or group conferences are usually held with
pilots and co-pilots, navigators, bombardiers,
radio operators and, possibly, air gunners.
. 5. PREPARATION FOR BRIEFING. a.
Certain principles are basic in any briefing.
(1) Subject to the approval of the C.O.,
briefings are usually planned by S-2 working
with S-3, with aid from other staff sections.
In such cases, S-2 should submit a program to
the commanding officer prior to each briefing
and advise each participating officer of his part.
(2) In a well-planned briefing, each officer
will confine his remarks to his specific subject,
thereby avoiding duplication.
Unnecessary
repetition should be avoided.
(3) Briefing should be matter-of-fact and
to the point. All pertinent ~acts must be included and stated as simply and directly as
possible.
(4) Briefing should be quickly over. Too
great emphasis cannot be laid on brevity and
clarity. Nothing should be introduced that does
not pertain to the immediate mission. Instruction on general intelligence subjects, such
as recognition and principles of A/A fire, should
have been given in earlier periods of training.
(5) Visual aids are invaluable, but only
when unmistakably pertinent and well-organized.
b. Basic subjects to be covered include:
( 1) Importance of the target, and the effect
its destruction will have on the enemy.
(2) Landmarks, checkpoints and target
identification features.
(3) Enemy defenses, which should be described calmly, pictorially and precisely.
(4) Friendly situation, which should include restricted areas, aids to navigation, bomb
line, friendly aircraft and shipping that may be
encountered on the mission and recognition
procedure.
(5) Positions and formations to be flown.
(6) Weather.
(7) Radio procedure and signals.
(8) Routes and bombing procedure.
c. Immediately on receipt of mission order,
S-2 should:
(1) Study field order (operations or combat
order).
(2) Get from files the folders, charts and
. photographs of the target.
(3) Assign assistant S-2's to specific duties.
(See par. 5 d. below.)
(4) Supervise posting of maps, and charting of route.
(5) Ascertain that the balopticon operator
knows the sequence of target maps, photographs,
etc., and the exact positions to be projected.
(6) Telephone higher headquarters or
other sources for latest information on flak, •
enemy fighters, location of bomb line and other
data.
(7) Prepare a reference check list to assure
that. no important information is omitted in the
briefing.
·
d. In certain theaters one or a few officers
may do all the briefing, particularly where the
unit of operation is as small as a group or
squadron. For larger missions, the tendency is
towards specialization-see the following typical
bomber mission assignments for an intelligence
section of 12 ◊-fficers:
BRIEFING
OFFICERS
INTERROGATION
1.
General supervision and coordination.
I.
Supervise schedule of interrogation.
2.
Prepare program and preside at briefing.
2.
Serve as interrogators if
desired.
Three
3. Inform staff of duties.
3. Supervise preparation of
reports.
4. In readiness to care for all emergencies.
4. Maintain order in interrogation room.
27
�BRIEFING
CHAPTER VI
OFFICERS
BRIEFING
INTERROGATION
(
TARGETS
1.
Serve as interrogators.
1.
Serve as interrogators.
1.
Rearrange briefing room
for interrogation.
1.
Have N.C.O.'s check m
P.W. kits and purses
and return personal belongings.
2.
Serve as interrogators.
Summon staff to duties, including group
navigator and bombardier.
1.
Intelligence liaison with
higher hqs.
2. Secure S-2 office and briefing room from unauthorized persons.
2.
Arrange for runner to
stand by during operation.
1.
Two
2.
3.
Prepare summary of complete target information for each target.
Check on camouflage, dummies and decoys.
Photos for individual inspection; wall displays.
ENEMY DEFENSES
Plot enemy defenses on briefing room map
and brief on all pertinent:
a. Flak information
b. Balloon information
c. Enemy fighter information
d. Searchlight information
2. Brief on tides and convoys, friendly and
enemy.
3. Secure all current information from higher
headquarters.
1.
Two
4. Locate bomb line.
SUPPLIES AND ARRANGEMENTS
Supervise clerical staff on preparation of
maps (including target maps) for crews.
2. Issue maps (including target maps) to proper
members of crew.
l.
Two
3· Arrange briefing room for briefing.
4· Check and operate balopticon.
5. Plot course on intermediate scale map in
briefing room.
LIAISON WITH OPERATIONS, MESS, ETC.
1.
Two
Have N.C.0.'s issue escape kits and purses
(also jungle kits in jungle areas) and take
up personal belongings.
2. Obtain name and rank of aircraft commanders for roll call.
3. Check mess for odd-hour refreshments.
4. Have A.L.O. notify supporting ground units,
antiaircraft, etc., concerning mission.
DUTY OFFICER
1.
One
3. Notify communications and weather officers.
4. Check group navigation officer on synchronization of watches.
28
3. Serve as interrogator.
�CHAPTER VI
(
6. SUBJECTS ON WHICH S-2 BRIEFS.
a. For a heavy bomber group on an ordinary
mission, S-2 will probably discuss:
( 1) Targets-primary, alternate and last resort-and their strategic importance; identification of targets from various air approaches, and
exact aiming point for each flight or squadron.
(a) Results of recent attacks on the
targets.
(Illustrated with photographs and
slides.)
(b) Targets of opportunity that may be
found in target _area.
(c) Prisoner of War camps or other restricted areas in target vicinity.
( d) Outstanding terrain features such as
waterways or valleys that might aid navigation
to or from target, or mountains that might be
obstacles to the mission.
(e) Elevation of target. ·
(f) Information on tides, if pertinent.
(2) Bomb Line. Bomb Line (BL) is a
line beyond which any target may be attacked without danger of bombing friendly
ground forces. During movements in forward
areas, bomb line is fixed daily by higher headquarters. There are two born~ lines: strategic,
which is the more permanent and effective
throughout the theater, and tactical, which may
vary from hour to hour and is only used by
air units directly epgaged in ground support.
S-2 must at all times know the location of front
lines, friendly and enemy positions, patrols, and
ground fighting. For ground support operations he must keep his crews constantly informed of exact location of tactical bomb line,
and the areas in which they may and may not
attack. He himself may have to establish his
unit's tactical bomb line through direct liaison
with ground units or through the A.LO.
(3) Enemy ground defenses to, from and
at targets.
(a) Flak on recent missions.
i. Battery positions if the area is lightly defended, or areas in which flak is located if
defenses are numerous.
ii. Type of weapon: guns, automatic
weapons, or small arms.
iii. Accuracy.
iv. Amount of fire: meager, moderate,
or intense.
v. If the fire was from guns it should
also be stated whether the fire was "seen" or
"unseen", whether it was barrage, plotted con-
BRIEFING
centration, or continuously pointed fire, -and
the altitude of the bursts.
( b) Barrage balloons.
(c) Searchlight areas.
( d) Radar stations. ·
(4) Enemy air defenses.
(a) Total number of enemy fighters with111 operational range of route to target, the
target itself, and route back.
(b) Fighter standing patrols.
(c) Latest enemy tactics.
( d) Possible enemy use of reclaimed
Allied aircraft.
(5) Enemy passive defenses.
(a) Camouflage.
(b) Dummy installations.
(c) Decoys.
( d) Smoke and fire.
(6) Enemy recognition procedure.
(7) Security measures.
(a) Deposit of personal papers, diaries,
etc., before take-off.
(b) Disposition of aircraft and documents
m event of forced landing.
( c) Instructions in event of capture.
(8) Mention of escape and evasion technique in event of landing in enemy or neutral
territory. (Full instructions should have been
given previously.)
(g) Special air-sea rescue instructions. (Full
instructions should have been given previously.)
( 10) Requests for specific information desired by commander or by S-2. (See par. 7 below.)
( 11) Friendly situation. _
(a) Balloon barrage areas.
(b) Restricted flying areas.
( c) Position of friendly convoys.
(d) Position of other friendly shipping.
(e) Free bombing areas.
(f) Other friendly aircraft operating 111
m1ss10n area.
(12) Any other special information.
In heavy
bomb groups separate briefing for gunners may
be held simultaneously with the main briefing.
This separate briefing is conducted by an S-2
officer with the assistance of the gunnery officer
and will ordinarily cover the following points:
(1) Name of target and explanation of it~
importance.
(2) Route in and out and timing.
b. Separate briefing for gunners.
29
�CHAPTER VI
(3) Enemy fighter types which may be encountered arid their expected tactics.
(4) Enemy defenses.
(5) Friendly fighter support-types and
tactics, and caution against firing on them.
(6) Possibility of enemy using captured
friendly aircraft.
(7) Review of possible stoppages and malfunctions of guns and equipment.
(8) Importance of making and reporting
observations.
c. Briefing for sea search or anti-submarine
mission follows procedure similar to that for
bomber mission except that information relates
to sea rather than land defenses and targets.
d. Briefing for fighter offensive, air-ground
support mission or escort mission follows procedure similar to that for a bomber mission.
e. Briefing for fighter interception mission
usually is impossible because of necessity for
immediate take-off. S-2 in fighter units must,
therefore, have supplied pilots with a continuous flow of "background" information: enemy
aircraft, equipment, performance and tactics;
identification of enemy and friendly aircraft,
vessels and armored force equipment; geography
of theater, flying restrictions and recognition
procedure over friendly territory, location of
alternate landing fields, evasion methods and
escape routes. S-2 with fighter unit must keep
his situation map absolutely up to the minute
so that pilots will at all times know latest details
of enemy and friendly situation.
f. Briefing for air-ground support mission will
30
BRIEFING
include the maximum amount of ground information, including enemy and friendly installations, ground to air recognition signals, and
strategic and tactical -bomb lines.
g. Briefing for reconnaissance or photographic
mission will include area to be covered, altitude
of target and of flight, time of day for taking
photographs and same information of enemy
defenses as for combat crews.
h. Briefing for troop carrier mission will include information given combat crews and, in
addition, describe in detail the point of landing
(D.Z.-drop zone), altitude of D.Z., altitude of
drop, barometric pressure at D.Z., initial point,
run-in, and geographic features that might be
useful in navigating or harmful in low altitude
flying.
i. Briefing of air transport and ferry crews
emphasizes navigational aids, recognition signals, eva?ion and air-sea rescue technique, as
well as health and protection if forced down in
isolated territory.
7. RECONNAISSANCE VALUE OF MISSIONS. At briefing, S-2 should ask for any
particular information he wishes the crews to
bring back. Little information is obtained by
a general request, but by making specific requests ("Observe area 'A' for reported enemy
airdrome," or "Pay particular attention to the
area off Cape X for enemy shipping"), S-2 will
frequently obtain facts that might otherwise be
overlooked or not reported.
�(
Chapter VII
INTERROGATION
•
Paragraph
General Procedure ............ .
Priority in Interrogation ..... .. ......... . ..... . ......... . ... . . .
Flash News ....................... . ....... .. ............. . . .
Interrogation Technique .................. . .... . .. . .......... .
Interrogation Forms ......................................... .
1. GENERAL
PROCEDURE. a. Combat
crews are interrogated after each mission to
determine whether or not the objective was
accomplished and to get from them all information of military value they have obtained in
reconnaissance of, and combat with, the enemy.
Even though the mission or sortie may have
been abortive, interrogation should take place
to obtain observations of crew members and to
determine whether the failure to accomplish
objective was due to personnel factors, malfunction of equipment, weather, enemy action,
recall or other causes. As soon as possible after
landing, crews are interrogated by S-2 and his
assistants. In some theaters flash or preliminary
reports are obtained from the crews at their
planes. Later, come the more comprehensive
interrogations and, still later, special interrogating officers may question the crews: the armament officers may question the gunners; group
bombardier, the bombardiers; group navigator,
the navigators; group engineering officer, the
pilots and flight engineers; group communications officer, the pilots and radio operators. In
~ddition, S-2 flak specialists may hold separate
short interrogations.
b. Transportation. On landing, crews must
be brought to the place of interview as quickly
as possible. On some fields aircraft are dispersed more than a mile from headquarters and
unless transportation is efficiently organized,
harmful delays result. Although it is the responsibility of the transportation officer to provide
jeeps or trucks for crews, S-2 will be held responsible for any delay in submitting reports.
c. Refreshments. Arrangements should be
I
2
3
4
5
Page
31
33
33
33
34
made with mess officer to supply coffee, doughnuts and sandwiches, or other appropriate refreshmen ts, to the crews as soon as they reach
the quarters reserved for interrogation.
d. Interrogation Quarters. Facilities for interrogation vary, but for bomber crews it is
best, when possible, to provide one large room
for reception of all, and a number of small
rooms for the separate interrogation of each
crew privately. In contrast to such ideal interrogation quarters, at advanced landing fields
subject to enemy air attacks it may be necessary to interrogate combat crews near their
aircraft immediately after landing in order to
deny the enemy a target of concentrated personnel.
e. Time of Interrogation.
Interrogation
should take place as soon as possible after return from the mission. The longer the crews
are delayed the more they suggest to each other,
unconsciously modifying or altering the impressions of what each individual actually saw.
The interrogation itself should be as brief as
is consistent with accurate and complete coverage because the immediate forwarding of the
telephone report is essential.
f. Interrogation Forms. Interrogation form-s
ordinarily are prescribed by higher headquarters. S-2 fills out these forms and adds
other information he considers of value.
g. Interrogation Equipment. During interrogation the intelligence officer should have a
map of the mission route and pictures of the
target area. Silhouettes, pictures and models of
aircraft and naval vessels are useful in checking
recognition reports of crew members.
31
•
�•
/
DIAGRAM OF
GROUP
INTERROGATION
z....
m
;::i0
;::i0
0
G)
~
0
z
�CHAPTER VII
(
h. Assignments.
Each intelligence officer
should be assigned specific duties in the interrogation procedure.
(See Briefing and Interrogation Assignments, pages 27-28.)
i. Knowledge of the situation. Interrogation
officers must be thoroughly familiar with the
general situation within their theater of operation. Those who cannot attend the briefing
should be completely informed concerning details of the mission.
2. PRIORITY IN INTERROGATION. a.
Crews should not be interviewed by anyone in
advance of their interrogation by intelligence
officers. Even the commanding officer should be
encouraged to defer any detailed questioning
until after the interrogation. When crews have
important or exceptionally interesting stories
they may be sent to the commander after interrogation is completed to give the highlights
of their mission.
b. Combat crews who have not gone on the
mission (often the worst offenders in causing
confusion) should not be permitted to talk to
returning crews until interrogation is concluded.
c. Newspaper reporters should not be present
either in the reception room or the smaller
interviewing rooms. They should get their
stories afterwards.
d. To assure the necessary privacy and speed,
a guard should exclude all persons without
direct part in the interrogation.
3. FLASH NEWS. a. Flash news of immediate importance must be transmitted to higher
headquarters by the swiftest available means. In
general, flash news will include such information as:
( 1) Friendly aircraft down at sea; dinghies
or life rafts seen; all friendly aircraft in distress.
(2) Enemy convoys, warships and naval
movements.
(3) Enemy tank and troop concentrations
and movements.
(4) Any other urgent or tactical information.
b. The report should always include:
(1) Location of object reported.
(2) Description of object reported
(a) Enemy ships: type, speed and heading.
(b) Enemy troops: approximate number,
disposition and direction of movement.
INTERROGATION
( c) Enemy vehicles: type, number, disposition and direction of movement.
(3) Time of observation.
(4) Height of observation.
c. Some crews are so trained in the need for
radio silence that they neglect to use radio when
they should, even to report a friendly aircraft
in distress or a life raft at sea. Conditions under
which radio silence may be broken should be
defined by the air commander in a written
order, and crews advised accordingly.
4. INTERROGATION TECHNIQUE.
a. There are two general methods of interrogation: crews tell their story in their own way,
even if it involves skipping from subject to subject, or take up one point at a time, covering
it completely before going on to the next.
Either method will get results, but the skilled
S-2 can lead the flow of conversation along the
channels of pertinent information instead of
letting the interrogation degenerate into a talkfest.
b. The interrogating officer should never
cause crew members to feel they are on the witness stand being grilled. If the tales brought
back seem exaggerated, the interrogator should
never say so. He should merely make notes of
what is said and by his manner impress crew
members with the seriousness of the interrogation and the necessity of exact reporting.
c. S-2 should:
( 1) Be interested in each member of the
crew. He should know each man's name and
address him individually.
(2) Be interested in the story the crew ha5
to tell. No matter how many times S-2 may
have heard the same story before, he must listen
attentively-some new fact may be mentioned
that is precisely the fact the commander or
higher headquarters needs for planning a new
attack.
(3) Be interested in negative information:
what the crew say they did not see may be of
importance.
(4) Evaluate the relative accuracy and reliability of individual crew members and learn
where full dependency can be placed and where
enthusiasm or exaggeration should · be discounted. (Listeners at friendly stations often
monitor the chatter of the crews once radio
telephone silence is broken. These conversations, accurately recorded and timed, can be
33
�CHAPTER VII
of help in fixing the exact time or sequence of
events.)
(5) For each observation obtain exact information of time, place, altitude, visibility.
(6) Insist on accuracy.
(7) Get the whole story of a mission in a
single interview. Occasionally crews may have
to be recalled, but S-2 should avoid this if
possible.
d. Don'ts:
( 1) Don't belittle or laugh at reports that
seem ridiculous or beyond belief. The FW-190
was first described by a crew member who reported he saw a German radial-engine fighter,
at a time when it was not known that Germany
had such a fighter.
(2) Don't "brow-beat" or be too insistent
in qu<:;stioning.
(3) Don't ask leading questions or encourage crews to make positive statements about
recognition of aircraft, shipping or vehicular
equipment, unless they are positive. ,
(4) Don't keep crews waiting or detain
them at the interrogation longer than is necessary.
(5) During interrogation, don't eat or
drink or indulge in nervous habits such as
drumming, tapping, chair-rocking or fidgeting.
(6) Don't become excited or raise your
voice. If crews become. excited and start shouting at each other, don't try to out-shout them
for the sake of restoring order.
e. Claims of aircraft destroyed or damaged in
combat present grave difficulties to the interrogator. Justice must be done crew members who
claim victories, yet utmost care must be observed to prevent acceptance of claims not fully
proved. To maintain exact information on
34
INTERROGATION
enemy order of battle, the interrogator should
accept claims of enemy planes destroyed only
after most thorough, yet friendly and considerate, interrogation; even this acceptance must
be sent to Group S-2 or Wing A-2 for verification through coordination with all other claims
and evidence.
f. Reports of bombing hits and bombing damage must be carefully evaluated by S-2. Bomb
damage cannot be accurately observed at time
of the bombing, yet such reports will have some
merit and S-2 should ask for and examine them
impersonally and precisely. Pictures taken during a mission are a ready check on the accuracy
of the crew's reporting.
g. The interrogator should not accept reports
of unusual observation, or conflicting reports
from two or more crews on the same mission,
without probing them thoroughly. Transmission of such reports to higher authority without
evaluation or ·qualifying comments will result,
inevitably, in endless queries.
h. Statements that are too general-such. as
"small warships"-should never be forwarded
to higher headquarters. S-2 should attempt to
identify the ships or, failing to do so, should
list all that was specifically observed about
them. Similar care should be taken against the
use of inexact military and aircraft terms.
5. INTERROGATION FORMS. The use of
an interrogation form, or check list, has been
found indispensable.
(A sample list for a
bomber unit engaged in high altitude daylight
missions is given on the next page Form 1.
Forms 2 and 2a are sample combat encounter
forms. Form 3 is a sample interrogation check
list for a fighter unit. Form 3a is a suggested
guide for a troop carrier interrogation.)
�INTERROGATION
CHAPTER VII
Form 1
(
Interrogation Form
ALWAYS GIVE ffilE, PLACE, HEIGHT
(Group)
(A/C No.)
(Sqdn.)
· (Letter)
( Time took off)
(Position in formation)
PILOT
------------ C
0- PIT
NAV
BOMB
RADIO
1.
( Heading)
(Initial point)
2.
------------ BALLWAISTTUR
R
----------------------- L WAIST
TAIL GUN
(Aiming Point)
(Wind direction)
(Time)
(Wind velocity)
(Airspeed)
(Method of sighting, individual or other - describe)
BOIES DROPPED:
(On target area)
J.
(Time landed)
------------ TOP TUR
BCMBING ATTACK: .._(T-a-r-ge__,t,....)_ _ _ __
(Altitude)
(Date)
(Bomb-load)
OBSERVED RESULTS OF BOMBING ATTACK:
(Jettisoned)
(Bombs brought back)
--------------35
�CHAPTER VII
INTERROGATION
Form 1 (Continued)
4.
ENEMY FIGHTER OPPOSITION (Use separate encounter form for each encounter):
(Total number of E/A seen)
(Types)
(Area and duration of each phase of battle)
(Tactics employed by enemy)
(Special color, markings, characteristics or behavior of E/A)
(Defensive tactics employed by our A/C)
5.
OBSERVED FIGHTER SUPPORT:
Picked up:
(Time)
Time
36
(Height)
(Combats with E/A)
(Duration)
6.
(Place)
FLAK:
Place
Alt.
of A/C
Type
Intensity
Accuracy
Appearance of bursts and
other data
1
�INTERROGATION
CHAPTER VII
(
Form -1 (Continued)
7.
FRIENDLY A/C LOST OR IN DISTRESS (Full details of each):
8.
ROUTE:
9.
OBSERVATION (Balloons, decoys, dUinr.1ies, camouflage, smoke screens,
enemy signals; activity at airdromes, ports, waterways,
roads, railway yards; concentrations of vehicles, troops,
vessels; landmarks, new enemy installations, etc.)
10.
Name
--------
(Deviation, if any, ' fran ordered route)
CASUALTIES:
Position
Injury or
cause
death
37
�CHAPTER VII
INTERROGATION
Form 1 (Continued)
11.
DAMAGE TO A/C (Briefly) :
12.
TECHNICAL FAILURES (Briefly):
13.
PHOTOGRAPHY:
14,.
CREWS' SUGGESTIONS AND COJMENTS (Crews should receive every encourager.i.ent
--------------------------------------
Camera carried?
------- Photos
taken?
------
to express their views):
-----------------------
S-2 OFFICER:
--------- TIME COMPLETED:--------
(Any other details)
Witnesses to the Encounter
Name
Position
Confirming which details
Connnent of the interrogator.
{Ti.me)
38
(Signature of Interrogator)
�INTERROGATION
CHAPTER VII
(
Form 2
INTERROGATION FOHM FOR EACH ENCCXJNTER
(A!C Number)
(Group)
(Squadron)
(Position in Fornation)
(Type of E./A Attacking)
(Heading)
(Time)
(Date)
(Crew Captain)
(Position of Sun)
(Place)
(visibility)
(Altitude)
Direction of Attack
(Indicate clock position on diagram)
(Circle one of the following)
High Above Level Below Low
(Other details regarding course of attack)
9
3
6
Fire of E/A
(Bursts)
(Distance)
Our fire against E/A
Name of Gunner
Gun Position
(Effect on our A/C)
TJo. of Bursts
Distance
Hits ii' any
(Observed Condition and Behavj_or of E/A Resulting from our Fire)
(Other E/A Attacking at Same Time)
(Other of Our A/C Firing at This E/A)
(Special color, markings, characteristics or behavior of this E/A)
-----------------------
39
�CHAPTER VII
INTERROGATION
Form 2a
Charts of stylized formations such as the two shown on this page are used to diagram enemy
fighter interception encountered by bombardment missions. These charts may be adapted for use
in any theater. Small rubber stamps of aircraft outlines, with different sizes for bombers and fighters, and with different colored ink-pads for friendly or enemy forces, may sometimes be secured
locally.
9F
T
T
'r
~
T
T
~
?
~
~
40
?
�INTERROGATION
CHAPTER VII
Form 3
(
INTERROGATION CHECK LIST FOR
FIGHTER UNIT
Since fighter missions may be of many types,
both offensive and defensive, it is often best for
S-2 with a fighter unit to prepare his own
check list for each mission. The following list
contains some items to be included:
1. Date.
2. Squadron and group number.
3· Number of aircraft operating.
4· Type of aircraft.
5· Mission on which dispatched.
6. Time of take-off.
7. Place of take-off.
8. Time of landing.
g. Place of landing.
If Operating as Part of Larger Formation10. Position of unit in formation.
11. Size of formation.
12. Other units and types of aircraft concerned.
13. Time, height and place of rendezvous.
14. Orders given to aircraft after take-off.
15. Course flown.
16. Were enemy aircraft sighted?
If so, .
where?
17. Relative position of enemy when sighted.
18. Numbers and types of enemy.
19. Height, speed, formation of enemy.
20. Weather conditions when enemy sighted.
If Aerial Combat Occurs21. Time, place and altitude of engagement.
22. Who attacked first, and how?
23. Defensive tactics used.
24. Course of ensuing combat.
25. Own casualties-aircraft and personnel. If
any pilots failed to return, when and where
were they last seen, and what were they doing?
2G. Enemy casualties-
( 1) Number and types of aircraft.
(2) By whom claimed.
(3) Circumstances ..
27. Aggressiveness of enemy in g1vmg battle.
28. Effectiveness of enemy cooperation and
tactics.
29. Camouflage and markings of enemy aircraft.
30. Position of guns on enemy aircraft,
amount and type of fire.
31. Unusual tactics employed by enemy.
32. Effectiveness of cooperation between our
·quadrons.
33. If enemy not engaged, why not?
Offensive Operations Only34· Time, height and place of entering enemy
territory.
35. Route flown over enemy territory.
36. Enemy land and sea targets attackedtype and location.
37. How was attack carried out?
38. Results of attack observed.
39. Enemy reactions to mission.
40. Enemy antiaircraft fire encountered:
( 1) Location.
(2) Type (small arms, automatic weapons,
guns).
(3) Intensity.
(4) Accuracy.
(5) Special observatio~s.
41. Time, height and place of leaving enemy
territory.
General42. Anything else of interest seen (land, sea,
air).
43. Weather conditions during flight.
44. Any failures of equipment (radio, oxygen,
etc.).
45. Reason for equipment failure (to be
given only if certain that the reason given is
correct).
41
�INTERROGATION
CHAPTER VII
Form 3a
INTERROGATION CHECK LIST FOR
TROOP CARRIER UNIT
Interrogation of troop carrier crews does not
occur so frequently as interrogation of bomber
crews or fighter pilots; but when troop carrier
units, as parts of a task or invasion force operation~ drop supplies to troops in forward areas
or drop troops behind enemy lines, the returning troop carrier crews must be interrogated.
Following accomplishment of troop carrier
missions of a secondary nature, such as air
evacuation of _sick and wounded from forward
landing strips and hauling freight _ and personnel, interrogation is not necessary; but S-2
with a troop carrier unit must understand the
purpose and the methods of interrogation. He
will, of course, "p repare his own interrogation
form, the one that suits him best, but the following suggested outline may serve him as a
guide:
1. Name.
2. Route followed:
3. Visibility and weathe~ conditions encountered during flight.
4. Was briefing adequate (enemy situation,
route out, route back, maps, photos, communications, etc.).
42
5. Troubles encountered m flight.
(a) Locating D. Z.
(b) Communications.
(c) Lights.
(d) Signals.
(e) Scheduled time of drop.
(f) Actual time of drop.
(g) Scheduled time of release (Gljder).
(h) Actual time of release (Glider).
(i) Navigational aids.
(j) Behavior of fighter escort.
(k) Air d iscipline (Paratroopers).
(1) Planned altitude of drop.
(m) Actual altitude of drop.
6. Enemy activity.
(a) Intense, moderate or meagre.
(b) Accurate or not.
(c) Altitude encountered.
(d) Location.
(e) Type of fire (Gun, A/ W or Small
Arms).
(f) Fighter.
7. \i\Tas the mission successful?
not?
8. Any failures of equipment?
g. Miscellaneous.
If not, why
�(
Chapter VIII
REPORTING
•
Par,1graph
keportmg ..... . .. .... . . ....... . .......... •. • • • • • • • ·
Report Writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .
-Types and Disposition of Reports . . .
. .. . ... . .
Security of Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... .... ... .. . .
1. REPORTING.
Reporting, the first span
in the bridge between the collection of information and the dissemination of intelligence,
is a primary function of S-2. Through reporting, S-2 transmits to higher headquarters the
information gained from interrogation of combat crews; higher headquarters utilizes this information in planning future missions and tactics and in preparing intelligence material for
dissemination to lower echelons.
2. REPORT
WRITING.
Reports from
combat units are higher headquarters' only
source of information on the results of combat
m1ss10ns. Accuracy, completeness and speed of
transmission are the major factors governing
the writing of reports; neglect of any one of
these factors may render the entire report
worthless.
3. TYPES AND DISPOSITION OF REPORTS. a. Chart A outlines the principal
types of bomber reports that may be encountered in most well-organized theaters. (Reports
of fighter, fighter-bomber and air support missions are seldom as detailed as reports of heavy
I
2
3
4
43
4J
43
bombardment units, partly because speed of reporting for the fighters is even more essential
than for the bomber.)
b. Group reports are consolidated at higher
headquarters and forwarded to Command or
Air Force to be merged with reports of other
participating units. The merged reports areanalyzed and the substance of them forwarded
to Commanding General, Army Air Force-;.
\Vashington. Furthermore, at Air Force headquarters summaries of these reports, together
with other intelligence, are consolidated and
s~nt down to lower echelons for dissemination
to combat crews.
4. SECURITY OF REPORTS. Reports contain classified information and their transmission must be properly safeguarded. Yet in transmitting fl.ash reports, S-2 should remember that
while codes delay the enemy in securing the information, they also delay receipt of the message
at higher headquarters. Whether to send a flash
message in code or in the clear will depend
on security of available communication, and
urgency for speed of transmission.
43:
�n
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)>
~
m
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~
CHART A
(5)
(1)
Name of Report
(2)
Prepared By
(3)
(4)
Sent To
When Sent
Method of
Transmission
(6)
(7)
Purpose of Report
Form of Report
FLASH REPORT
Sqn or Gp S-2
Next higher Hq
Immediately on re- Most rapid avail- To advise higher Hq No fixed form, but include
(Sometimes direct- ceipt of information
able means
of urgent information 1. Who, What, When, Where
1y to agency im 2. Time, Place, Height
mediately involved)
3. Time of receipt and
transmission
4. Source of information
5. Evaluation of information
See Form No. 4.
TELEPHONE REPORT
Sqn or Gp S-2
Next higher Hq
Immediately after in- Most rapid avail- Preliminary report of See Form No. 5.
terrogation
reports able means
results of mission
are received
MISSION REPORT
Sqn or Gp S-2
Next higher Hq
After interrogation By wire
reports are correlated writing
COMBAT REPORT
Sqn or Gp S-2
Next higher Hq
After interrogation In writing
reports are correlated
Detailed report of en- See Form No. 7.
counters with enemy
aircraft
COMBAT DUPLICATION
FORM
Sqn or Gp S-2
Next higher Hq
After interrogation In writing
reports are correlated (Diagram)
To provide informa See Form No. 8.
tion for eventual evaluation of all claim.;
GROUP COMBAT REPORT
Sqn or Gp S-2
Next higher Hq
After · all combat re- In writing
ports have been eval- (Diagram)
uated and checked
for duplication.
To prevent duplica- See Form No. g.
tion of combat claims
Next higher Hq
Immediately on re- In writing
ceipt of information
Detailed information See Form No.
of bombing and bombing photographs
PHOTO AND :BOMB IMPACT Gp Photo Officer
PLOT REPORT
or
in Detailed report of re - See Form No. 6.
suits of mission
10.
;o
.,,m
0
;o
....
z
(;)
�COMPREHENSIVE REPORT
PERIODIC REPORT
JOINT
Sqn or Gp S-2
Sqn or Gp S-2
Next higher Hq
After mterrogation In writing
reports are correlated
intervals
Next higher Hq
At
desi~- In writing
(Sometimes also to nated by higher Hq
adjacent Hq)
or whenever Gp co
desires
SUMMARY
SPECIAL REPORTS
Report of new items See Form No.
of intelligence accumulated by unit during a specified time
interval
Same as Periodic Re - Same as Periodic Repo:r~
port, but includes a but includes summary 0f
summary of friend! v friend! y operations
operations
Intelligence Officer A-2, Hq USA.\F Periodically; or, for
of higher Hq
Washington; lower tactical or technical
Hq
(Sometimes reasons, at aay time
also to adjacent
Hq)
In writing
Summary
situation
Usually by higher Lower Hq
At any time
Hq
(Sometimes also to
adjacent Hq)
Varied
Special reports or de •
tailed studies of subjects concerning the
enemy
No prescribed form.
Ma•,
vary from brief oral repo1 (
to elaborate document supported by maps, photographs and charts
(See Chap IV, par 1)
Preliminar"' report
Give following information
1. A(rplane designation
2. Base used for landing
3. Enemy encounters, and
resulting claims
4. Crew casualties
5. Success of mission
SPECIAL REPORT OF ATR- Senior ranking Next higher Hq
CRAFT RETURNING TO BASE crew member
OTHER THAN ITS OWN
HISTORICAL REPORT (ENTRY Historical Officer
INTO UNIT HISTORY)
Immediately on land- Most rapid avail
able means
ing
Next higher Hq. Monthly
marked "Historical
Data"
In writing
of
enemy See Form :\'o.
n
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)>
-a
-I
m
~
~
11.
In writing
OPERATIONS-INTELLI- Sqn or Gp S-2 and Next higher Hq
Daily
(Combined (Sometimes also to
GENCE REPORT
S-3
operations-intelliadjacent Hq)
gence center)
INTELLIGENCE
Check-list for bomber See Form 1 (pages 35-38).
interrogation,
a n d (Modification and deletion
composite . report on should be made for medium
mission
light and attack bomber,
fighter-bomber,
reconnaissance
and
photographic
units)
12.
Summary of month's See special instructions isact ivity, etc.
sued to Historical Officers
by Historical Division, Hq.
AAF
~
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-a
0
=
z
C,
�REPORTING
CHAPTER VIII
Form 4
FLASH REPORT
IMMEDIATE PRI CRI TY.
'The following information is to be telephoned at once to Duty Intelligence
Officer at wing. No delays in procuring or transmitting it can be permitted.
1.
FRIENDLY A/C DO/IN OR
FRIEiIDLY A/C DOlm OR
FRIENDLY A/C DOWN OR
DINGHIES, LIFE RAFTS
IN
IN
IN
OR
DISTRESS AT SEA
)
illSTRESS OVER ENFJAY--~TERR--ITOR-Y
) Check
DISTRESS ELSEWHERE
- - - - ) Which
PERSONS IN ms'IRESS
).
OBSE,RVING AIRCRAFT:
GRCUP
------ NO.
OR LETTER
------ HEIGHT -------
AIRCRAFT IN DISTRESS:
NO. OR LETTER
APPROXIMATE
POS
....I_TI_O_N_______ TIME SEEN -HEA--D-IN_G_ _ _ _ _ __
HEIGHT
PARACHU__,TE,.,_,S,,,...._.SEE-N______ CONDITION
DINGHY-s--EE-N
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
A11Y OTHER REJJARKS:
2.
ENElfY SHIPPING, NAVAL UNITS OR CONVOYS AT SEA:
(Number and type of ships)
( Time seen)
(Course of ships)
(Place)
(Altitude of reporting A/C)
(Other information)
3•
OTHER FLASH NE\'fS:
( :oa.te)
Phoned_ to Wing by
46
----------------------( Time)
Initials of Interrogating Officer
------------- Time ---------
�REPORTING
CHAPTER VIII
form 5
(
TELEPHONE REPORT
l.
2.
Name of primary target
---------- Number A/C attacking ----Name of secondary target
Number A/C attac~ing
----
3. Name of 1. R• target
Number A/C attacking
----
4.
Target of opportunity
Number A/C attacking
----
5.
Uni ts pa.rti ci pa ting
6.
Number of A/C taking off
7.
Number of A/C returning early
8.
Number of A/C lost or missing as far as known
9.
Results of bombing:
-------------------------------good
----fair
-------
poor
nil
10.
Number of casualties:
killed _ _ _ wounded___
ll.
Enemy air opposition:
considerable
12.
Flak:
13.
Observed fighter support:
intense
moderate
moderate
missing _ _ _ __
slight
nil
nil
meager
14. weather as it affected the mission:
15. Flash observations of outstanding importance:
16.
Quick evaluation of E/A: destroyed
probable
damaged
•
Telephoned to
Ti.me
-------------- by --------------
--------------
Date
47
�CHAPTER VIII
REPORTING
Form 6
(
EXAMPLE OF A BOMBARDMENT UNIT'S WIRED MISSION REPORT
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
k.
I.
m.
n.
o.
p.
q.
r.
s.
t.
u.
Teletype, Telegraph, or Radio
Designation of unit.
Time of take-off.
Time of return.
Number of a/c taking off.
Number of a/c attacking primary target.
Number of a/c attacking secondary target.
Number of a/c attacking last resort target.
Number of a/c attacking target of opportunity.
Number of a/c which failed to bomb target.
Number of a/c lost to flak.
Number of a/c lost to e/a.
Number of a/c lost by accident.
Number of a/c lost by reasons unknown.
Time of attack.
Altitude of attack.
Bombs on each target (number, size, and type).
(1) Bomb loadings, number, size, type.
(2) Bombs unaccounted for, number, size, type.
Number of a/c jettisoning bombs. (number, size, type of bombs).
Number of a/c bringing bombs back. (number, size, type of bombs).
Personnel casualties (number killed, number seriously wounded, number slightly wounded, number
piissing).
Number e/a destroyed, probably destroyed, damaged. (See note below.)
Remarks.
(1) Geaeral description of fighter opposition giving approximate number and types encountered
and main types of attack.
(2) General description of flak encountered giving where encountered, type, intensity, and accuracy.
(3) Elaboration on information on a/ c lost or in distress.
(4) Information on a/c seriously damaged, or crashed on return.
(5) Number of a/c sustaining category "A" and number sustaining category "AC", "B", or "E"
battle damage.
(6) Elaboration on observation of interest, previously noted in flash report (if necessary).
(7) General results of the bombing attack. An elaboration of that previously given in flash report.
(8) Crews' comments and suggestions, if of value.
(9) A brief descriptive summary of the mission.
NOTE: If any part of the report cann0t be submitted at the proper time, reasons for nonsubmission
will be given, and the information will_be furnished by teletype when it becomes available.
When teletype or telegraph is not available and this report must be sent in code by radio, the
sequence of items sent must be scrambled differently each time ·a t random. To facilitate this
scrambling each complete item should be copied down on the message blank in scrambled
sequence.
In some theaters m1ss1on reports are required for each bombardment m1ss10n !fl.own. Similar
reports may be S.O.P. for fighter units performing support missions for bombardment. For
some units a · daily report may be S.O.P. which will include all unit operations for the 24-hour
period including sorties flown and results of enemy encounters and summaries of enemy
activities such as bombing attacks against the airdrome.
•
48
�REPORTING
CHAPTER VIII
Form 7
COMBAT REPORT
(
nate
Group
Squadron
Place where attacked
A/C No.
Time
story of the attack
1.
--------
-----------
------- Height ---------
(Include above how E/A attacked; how close he came; where he was hit;
how much he wasctamaged; and how he looked and acted going away.)
2.
Diagram of Attack:
on Diagram, show
X
X
X
X
a.
b.
c.
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Data on Combat
X
X
which of our A/C was attacked;
direction of E/A attack;
sun position.
X
a.
b.
c.
X
X
X
----------
our heading
visibility
type of E/A_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
d.
3.
Our
Gun Positions Firing on E/A.
Name
----------
If E/A was Shot Down or Damaged:
corroborated by
Position in A/C - - - - - - - - - - Other A/C firing at the same time?
5.
---------------
-------------
Positions
4.
level of attack:
from high above
above
-----(check one)
below
very low
Comments of the interrogator:
--------------------
-------------
Time
----- Interrogator --------
If formation was very different from standard, show on. back of sheet.
49
�Form 8
COMBAT DUPLICATION CHECK fORM
GROUP 72
Show direction, approx. time and type E/ A of
each attack with arrow. Above with blue arrow
-Below with green-Level with red.
DATE 5/ 17/ 43
8
\
8
0
e0
U)
Write numbers of our A/ C in circles.
Draw lines through circles not applying.
,a
m
-0
If actual formation is completely different from
position of circles turn page over and prepare
diagram on back.
•
0
,a
-t
Block out our missing A/ C in Red.
z
C,
�REPORTING
CHAPTER VIII
Form 9
(
COMBAT REPORT FORM (GROUP)
Target . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Date . . . . . . . . .
Vicinity of Attacks
Time of Attacks
)C
)C
)C
Shot down by E/ A-circled in red.
Shot down by Flak-circled in yellow.
Shot down by both-circled in orange.
Attacks from
Above-Blue
Level-Red
6
DISCUSSION:
Below-Green
51
�CHAPTER VIII
REPORTING
Form 10
PHOTO & BOMB IMPACT PLOTTING REPORT
(
1.
GROUP
2.
TARGET
J. A/C
4.
NEGATIVE SERIAL
5. F/L
6.
INTERVAL BETWEEN PICTURF.S
8.
BOMB LOAD
10..
SQUADRON
HOW MANY BOMBS WERE DROPff.1)
DATE
Sec.
?. AUTOMATIC?
X
LBS.
9. FUZE
X
LBS.
--------- X ---------LBS.
LBS.
X
11.
EXACT TIME Borns WERE RELEASED
12. 'IRUE AIR SPEED
1.3.
EXACT
14.
15.
A/C HEADING AT MOMENT BOMBS ViERE RELEASED
16,.
A/C TRACK AT MOMENT BOMBS WERE REIEASED
17.
ALTITUDE AT TIME BOMBS WERE RELEASED
18.
WAS SIGHTING PERFECT?
19.
IF NOT STATE BRIEFLY CIRCUMSTANCES INTERFERING WITH ACCURACY
20.
-----TIME CAMERA WAS STARTED ·
------
YES
_____________
GRaJND SPEED
MPH
---- MPH
MAG-
-------------- MAG
--------------- FT.
------ NO -------------
BOllBARDIEISESTIMATE OF POINT OF IMPACT - ON TARGET
(Measure from assigned aiming point in target area) _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
RANGE - SHORT _ _ _ _ _ yds.
OVER _ _ _ _ _ yds.
DEFLECTION-R_L_yds •
.
-----------------------------------------21.
POSITION PHOTOORAPHED
22.
OBSERVATIONS FROM PHOTO
NEG. NUMBER:
NOTE:
----------------------PRINTS:
fillii.ARKS
.
Attach diagram to this report showing formation flown, giving the
nwnber of each A/C and indicate which A/C carried cameras, ONLY ONE
DIAGRAM NEED BE SU1JHTTED.
52
�REPORTING
CHAPTER VIII
(
Form 11
SUGGESTED PERIODIC REPORT
I.
II.
Enemy bases
a. Land Installations
b. Improvements e.g. resurfacing, revetments, taxi-ways,
roads, radar
c. Storage and dumps
d. Damage
(1) Inflicted
(2) Repaired
Enemy Activity (Air)
a. Strikes on fixed installations
b. Interception on our searches and patrols
c. Interception of our strikes on enemy shipping
d. Strikes on our shipping
e. Sighting of enemy a/ c at enemy bases
f. New, unusual tactics
III.
Enemy Activity (Ground)-Depending on type of theater
IV.
Enemy Activity (Naval & Shipping)-Depending on type of theater
a. Surface shipping
b. Submarines
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
Varied use of enemy A/ A, S/Ls, etc.
Notes on enemy materiel
a. A / C
b. A / A
C. S/ L
d. Radar and radio
Estimate of Enemy Situation and Capabilities
Annexes
Analysis of our missions
b. Analysis of our searches
c. Analysis of enemy strikes
d. Box score of plane losses
a.
53
�REPORTING
CHAPTER VIII
Form 12
(
Headquarters Allied Air Forces
South West Pacific Area
Directorate of Intelligence
INTELLIGENCE SUMMARY
, ,n
Serial No .......................... .
.. ormation to the ................... , ... . .. .. of . . ......... ... .......... . 1944}
(prepared twice weekly)
SECTION "A" OPERATIONAL
I
GENERAL
Situation Review
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
ALLIED AIR ATTACKS
ENEMY AIR ATTACKS
INTERCEPTIONS AND COMBATS
ENEMY SCALE OF EFFORT
ENEMY ORDER OF BATTLE
ENEMY CASUALTIES
ENEMY MATERIAL
ENEMY TACTICS
OBJECTIVE DATA
SECTION "B" GENERAL
Annexes
(The same organization may issue periodic, as well as tactical and technical summaries. Sometitles from this latter series are "Field Condition~ in Guadalcanal," "Jap Air Tactics," etc. Each one,covers a special subject (or subjects) and covers that exhaustively.)
54
�l:hapter IX
(
l\iAPS AND DIAGRAMS
•
Paragraph
Scope ................. . ..... . . . • • • • • • • • • · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·
Situation Maps ...................... ~ ............... • • • • • • • •
Theater Maps .. .... ......... ..... . . .. ... . . • • • • - • • • • • • • • • • · • •
Enemy Air Order of Battle ...... .. ..... .......... . . ....... . .. .
..... . . . .
Geographic Flak and Enemy Defense Maps
Flak Diagrams .. ..... ..... . .. . ....... . .............. ...... . . .
Composite Maps .... - . ... .......... . . . .. . .... .. .. . .. ....... .
Bomb Impact Plots . . ........ . . . . . ... . .......... . ...... ..... .
Track Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... ..... .. ...... . ..... .
Target Charts and Strips .. . ....... . . . . . . ............ . ......... .
1. SCOPE.
a. This chapter assumes S-2 's
knowledge of the basic principles and practice
of military mapping and map reading (as outlined in FM's 21-25, 21-26, 21-30 and 30-22), and
discusses only special maps and diagrams whose
preparation and maintenance are peculiar to
intelligence.
The more common types of
graphic representations prepared by intelligence
section are:
( 1) Situation Map. (See Chapter IV, par.
7)
(2) Theater Map.
(3) Enemy Air Order of Battle. (See
Chapter IV, par. 5)
(4) Geographic Flak and Enemy Defense
Map.
1
(5) Flak Diagrams.
(6) Bomb Impact Plots.
(7) Track Charts.
( a) Air Combat.
( b) Proposed Route.
(8) Target Charts and Strips. (See _Chapter
IV, par. g)
2. SITUATION MAPS. a. Situation maps
portray enemy, friendly, or enemy and friendly,
operations and positions at a specific time. In
ground units, a map showing enemy positions
is known as an intelligence situation map; showing friendly positions, it is known as an operations situation map. In air units a combined,
or joint operations-intelligence, situation map
I
2
3
Page5555
56
4
56
5
6
7
56,
8
9
10
56
56
56
56
56
is recommended because S-2 is required to have
knowledge of both friendl y and enemy situation. Usually information is posted on an
overlay so that changes can be made quickly,.
and the map maintained constantly up to date ..
(1) The overlay should never be clutteredi
with material that will obscure the basic m formation , or with data already available on:
the underlying map.
(2) An y transparent hard-surfaced material',
such as tracing paper, tracing cloth, vellum,
cellophane, plasticele, plexiglass or cellulose·
acetate can be used for an overlay. Depending
on the surface of the overlay material, markings.
can be made with colored pencils, either lead'
or grease, or in special cases with colored inks.
(Camera film with the emulsion' washed off in·
warm water, with sodium carbonate added to
aid in the removal, makes a satisfactory substi~tu te for plasticele. The film should be so over
lapped that grease pencil rubbings will not
work through to the map surface.)
b. Where overlays are not used, postings may
be made directly on the basic map; using cardboard, push-pins and flags as symbols. Some· ·
situation maps, particularly in anti-submarine
units, are laid over an iron sheet and magnetized metal markers are placed at will on the·
surface.
c. To facilitate the measuring of distances,.
handy map scales made in the form of wooden
0
55
�CHAPTER IX
rulers can be hung near the appropriate maps.
d. The usual information posted on a situation map is listed in Chapter IV, Par. 7. It is
presented in the "shorthand" form of military
symbols prescribed in FM 21-30. Every item
posted should be dated.
3. THEATER MAPS. A theater map is a
display or "current evems" map. An effective
theater map is shown in Figure 11, page 66,
where typed information relating to events at
specific points is posted around the border of
the map and connected to the points by yarn
or pencil markings. Aerial photographs, detail
maps, statistical tables, news clippings, etc., are
used to add interest to the display.
4. ENEMY AIR ORDER OF BATTLE.
Enemy Air Order of Battle is most effectively
represented in map form. Figure 12, page 67,
shows how to keep such a map with push-pins
to indicate enemy air units. Different shapes,
colors and markings on pins can be used to distinguish type and strength of units represented.
In advanced field conditions, data is best marked
by grease pencil on an overlay.
5. GEOGRAPHIC FLAK AND ENEMY
DEFENSE MAPS. a. Flak and enemy defense
maps show the location and type of antiaircraft
weapons, searchlights, balloon barrages, etc. Locations may be indicated with pins, flags, or
markings on an overlay or on the map itself.
b. A geographic flak map shows by means
of circles and variety of colors the enemy antiaircraft defenses of an area, indicating location,
type, density and ranges of guns. (Such a map
is shown in Figure 13, page 68.)
MAPS AND DIAGRAMS
plastic material and hung on pins which indicate gun pos1t10ns. The varying density of
color, resulting from the overlapping of the
discs, is a gauge of the intensity of the fire. The
more accurate clock 'density charts showing the
number of units of fire to be expected along
the different radii or headings from a target
can be used to show the paths in and out which
are most free of flak.
7. COMPOSITE MAPS. At times, especially
when the unit is moving rapidly, a single map
presenting all information may be preferable.
8. BOMB IMPACT PLOTS. A bomb impact plot is an annotated print which shows
the location of each bomb impact in the target
area. These plots are made by using every
photograph taken by the attacking aircraft during any one mission. With the aid of a stereoscope all bursts visible on the photograph are
plotted · on the bomb impact overlay or photograph. A report stating what areas or buildings
appear to have been hit always accompanies
the Bomb Impact Plot.- (Fig. 8, page 64.)
g. TRACK CHARTS. There are two types
of track charts: air-combat and route. Track
charts of air combat locate attacks by enemy
aircraft and antiaircraft artillery on the track
made by our aircraft. (Figure 10, page 65).
Track charts of routes show the routes proposed
for each mission and those actually flown by
each aircraft or group of aircraft (Figure g,
page 65.) Information necessary for the preparation of both these charts is obtained through
interrogation, navigator's logs and photographs
of enemy aircraft.
TARGET CHARTS AND STRIPS.
Target charts and strips are described in Chapter IV, Par. g. Usually they are available to
S-2 from higher echelons; if not, S-2 can prepare
substitutes by drawing concentric circles at onemile intervals on a map of the target area.
Examples of target and approach charts and
target strips are shown ill Figures 1 7, pa~cs
.17-6~.
10.
6. FLAK DIAGRAMS. While a flak map
shows the location of enemy antiaircraft guns,
a flak diagram is a representation of the
volume of probable fire at a given altitude over
a specified target. Density of fire is of ten
illustrated by the use of light-colored circular
discs to show the field of fire. These can be
printed on a chart, or made of _a translucent
(
56
�MAPS AND DIAGRAMS
CHAPTER IX
TARGET STRIP, MEDITERRANEAN THEATER
(
The strip includes approach
map (bottom) of 25-mile radius
of the target; vertical photograph (top) of immediate target
are a at approximately I to
10,000; and a diagram (center)
identifying
military
objectives.
The border of the photograph is
gridded for reporting pinpoint
locations.
Separate target information sheets identify features on the mosaic by grid
references.
(
Figure I.
57
�MAPS AND DIAGRAMS
CHAPTER IX
PERSPECTIVE TAR GET CHART
Figure 2.
To help 8th Air Force navigators and bombardiers in rapid recognition of their targets from an angle, a fter
having been briefed with · vertical maps, perspective target charts were developed.
The circular map in the center of the sheet is a conventional vertical rendering of the target to a radius of
seven miles, adjusted as to scale ( I inch: I mile). Only outstanding, easily recognized features are shown.
The five double sets of maps around the edge are oblique views of the central map from the same altitude , giving the airman a good idea of what his target looks like, no matter what his approach. The narrow outside recta ngles
are, for the navigator, show the target at a distance of 15 miles: the inner ones are for the bombardier, show it ai
seven miles. Grid lines in both are drawn in perspective, indicating intervals of one mile in both directions. Effect of
reality is heightened by having highways and railroad tracks diminish in size as they recede into distance.
Same color scheme and symbols are used in all three maps. Cities are indicated in gray, water is blue, railroads, black. Airfields and dummy installations are labeled. Otherwise there is no lettering. Aim is to keep each
map as simple as possible so that the airman may retain a clear picture of it after briefing, and be able to refer
to it quickly and easily in the air, in spite of the distractions of flak, fighters, and oxygen exhaustion.
58
�erspective shows
Bremen ~
target
from
approach
o d' ection on a
ortheasterly
2ir32
degrees.
n
.
of
.
conheading " (dotte d lines a )
"Run-ups.
t er of m p
•
in
cen
. "n numverg1n_gher five or ~1xd1 after
are e1t
dete rmine
'de
ber, are
d
to prov1 d
exhaustive stufr~m flak ~n
routes free
t ime having
t
the same
'bl
check
a
t
poss 1 e
mthe
bes
s are n~
'nts
Run-upd
counting
pbo1
or e r, magnetic
ere d. • in from
clockwise
north.
TARGET
PERSPECTIY(EDET
Al L
)
CHART
ENLARGED
Figure 3.
�HOLLAND 54
HOLLAND 54
C
LM/ 408¥43 1.42/7()
Figure 4.
A flier rocketing towards Holland, at 250 mph and 50 feet off the water has sixty seconds, from
seeing the shore until passing over it, to find out exactly where he is. His trip from England has been
by dead reckoning and one part of the low sandy Dutch coastline looks amazingly like another. To
solve his dilemma, he now carries a LOW-LEVEL LANDFALL STRIP (above). This shows the appear-
A\l,,.L, GRIDS .-.R£ ONE MU..e ,\!>ART
IN 80'Hl DIR.£CT10N$
.H:·o· . :L. ·L. AND
Figure 5.
High-level landfall strip for heavy bombers (above, in two parts) shows Dutch coast from eight
miles out, 26,000 feet up. Only the things which a flier can clearly see at this altitude are shown.
These fade away in distance because of haze, until only rivers and towns are visible at top of map
60
�HOLLAND 55
HOLLAND
(
__.
WCSTKAP£Ll£
L
C
H
E
R
£
N - - --
. . . .------+---.. . .....--....:.--.. . --..;... . . _-'--___________
.~--_.;u;..-. . . . . . . . .1'
:>
t
MAGNETIC HEAOINC
IIOIH HOIH/0111.U ANO HRTl(Af
<,RillS.\RlONlMILEAl';\RT
----..-------"•3'..;;_"..:..<>_o·_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ ...:l:.:.:Mi/....:.~..::.0..::.
8 :::L;\/4...:.lf:::..3=-&4..:.::2/~70::.__ _ _____:::.::....::~----------....• ,.,, • .,.,.......,.,.., •••..,.....,...... """«''"''
Figure 4.
ance of the coast at altitude I 00 feet or less (upper half of strip), and an oblique view of the same
section from one-half mile up and one mile out (lower half). Large numbers at top of strip orient him
on small key map at right.
Figure 5.
25 miles away. Reference to town of Westkapelle (sec. 55 low-level, and 17 high-level) shows contrasting views of the same place. At 100 feet even small houses are clearly visible. At 26,000, town
is discernible only as an inhabited patch with a microscopic light-house at one end. Small docks cannot be seen.
61
�CHAPTER IX
MAPS AND DIAGRAMS
(
SOUTHWEST PACIFIC TARGET APPROACH CHART
Figure 6.
This chart is a simplified map of area surrounding an enemy target. It is an aid to the pilot in approaching the
target and to the bombardier in releasing his bombs. Concentric circles at I-mile intervals, with the target as
center, assist in rapid calculation of distance. (This chart is supplemented by the Target Detail Chart-Fig. 7).
62
�MAPS AND DIAGRAMS
CHAPTER IX
(
SOUTHWEST PACIFIC TARGET DETAIL CHART
.
I
2
4
!5
6
8
9
,.
10
II
12
14
13
1!5
18
0
8
C
C
K
L
.
N
RAPOPO
0
LAT. 4•2o'S.·LONG.1!5NO'E.
l·C·P·O·A
p
ATF n-o
1-24-43
2
13
14
15
p
16
Figure 7.
A simplified diagram of the target, showing its major outlines and distinctive features. In this example-an
airfie ld-the details emphasized are the runway with its adjacent cleared areas and approaches, all shown as a solid
mass ; taxi-ways; anti-aircraft positions; roads and prominent geographical features. (This chart supplements the Target
App ro ach Chart-Fig. 6).
63
�MAPS AND DIAGRAMS
CHAPTER IX
BOMBING IMPACT PLOT AND REPORT
GROUPS:
METHOD:
TARGET:
ALTITUDE:
BOMBS
BOMBS
BOMBS
BOMBS
A, B
Combat Wing Formation
Lora ire
23,000 to 25,000 feet
(
CARRIED: 141 x 1000-71 x 500
AT TARGET: 115 x 1000-61 x 500
HITTING TARGET: 14
ACCOUNTED FOR: 37
0
.
,_
0
~
Q
0
aootr••
l.ootyds.
Yt00141 .
091
GROUP-BOMBS ACCOUNTED FOR
A-•
18
19
B-0
Figure 8.
The Bomb Impact Plot is used by S-2 in determining the accuracy of bombing on each mission.
The plot shows the approximate location of each bomb strike and is often helpful in checking
interrogation reports. The Bomb Impact Plot shown above is one of many types prepared in the
theaters of operation.
64
(
�MAPS AND DIAGRAMS
CHAPTER IX
(
TRACK CHART-ROUTES
~ - - 'A' 8ornb1n9 Cip
--- _ _ ' 8 ' Bombing Clp.
Target-Lora ire
Propo:sed
Figure 9.
The Route Chart (above) indicates the route proposed for the mission and the routes actually
flown.
The Air Combat Chart (below) indicates those areas where flak was encountered and the
approximate positions at which intercepting aircraft were encountered.
Both charts are compiled from information derived through interrogation of crew members ,
navigators' logs and photographs.
TRACK CHART-AIR COMBAT
Me -109 x
FL.AK
d
Target- Loraire
Figure 10.
65
�MAPS AND DIAGRAMS
CHAPTER IX
(
THEATER SITUATION MAP
Figure 11.
A theater map, with important locations keyed by ruled lines or yarn to explanatory material mounted around
the margin, is a simple, effective medium for visual presentation of the theater situation. Marginal information often
includes photos, news clippings, detail maps and statistical tables.
66
�MAPS AND DIAGRAMS
CHAPTER IX
(
MAP SHOWING ENEMY AIR ORDER OF BATTLE
\
(
Figure 12.
Pu sh-pins are labelled and inserted in maps to provide a simple, graphic representation of the identity, location
and strength of enemy air units. A supplementary system of file-cards contains detailed information.
67
�CHAPTER IX
MAPS AND DIAGRAMS
GEOGRAPHIC FLAK MAP
(
(
Figure 13.
This map indicates the location of enemy anti-aircraft defenses , their range of fire and
relative intensity. Automatic weapons may be distinguished from heavy guns by the use of different
colors. Intensity of fire is shown by lines within the circles, and effective field of fire by the size
of the circles. The circles may be cut from a transparent material and pinned on the map , or
drawn directly on the map or on a transparent overlay.
68
�(
Chapter X
'fHEATER INDOCTRINATION
•
Paragraph
Responsibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Indoctrination Subjects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Continuing Indoctrination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Special Indoctrination of Combat Crews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Special Indoctrination of Intelligence Section Personnel . . . . . . . . . . .
Instructional Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. RESPONSIBILITY.
On, or before, arrival in the theater, personnel of air units will
ordinarily require extensive indoctrination.
Training is S-3's responsibility, yet he probably will be so involved in flight and operational training that S-2 will be required to ac-c ept responsibility for all other unit training.
2. INDOCTRINATION SUBJECTS. Prior
to departure from United States, while on shipboard, and after arrival in a combat theater, all
unit personnel should be taught and drilled on
the following subjects:
a. Air raid discipline: Local air raid rules,
blackout procedure, signals, etc. Air raid discipline should be tested periodically. There
should be frequent demonstrations, practices
and exercises.
b. Security and censorship regulations. In the
absence of a base security officer, S-2 will be
responsible for refreshing all personnel in the
general rules of security and censorship, and
explaining all special theater and unit regulations. (See Chapter XIII, Counterintelligence.)
c. Customs and characteristics of local population. In indoctrination lectures S-2 cannot em!)hasize too much the need for friendly relationship with the local inhabitants and constant
respect for their customs, regardless of how
peculiar such customs may appear to the American soldier. (For indoctrination material the
War Department, Army Service Forces, Special
Service Division publications are invaluable.)
d. Air regulations and .details of theater defenses. S-2 may share with S-3 the task of making
dear to flying personnel all air traffic, identification, flying restrictions and other aiF operational regulations in the theater. S-2 may be
I
2
3
4
5
6
Page
69
69
70
70
70
71
required also tq teach details of theater defenses, including aircraft reporting system, antiaircraft and searchlight procedure, radio and
observation posts, air fields and landing procedures.
e. Allied military forces. Ordinarily S-2 will
be charged with explaining the organization,
something of the history and accomplishments,
ranks and uniforms, equipment, _ tactics and
procedures of Allied forces.
f. Enemy military forces. S-2, frequently with
the assistance of guest lecturers, must teach the
organization, history, tactics, equipment, ranks
and uniforms, location, strength, capabilities,
training, morale, etc., of the enemy air, ground
and naval forces, with spedal emphasis on those
branches of the enemy air force which his unit
is likely to encounter.
g. Health and sanitary precautions. S-2 may
also be charged with teaching, or arranging for
the unit medical staff to teach, special theater
health and sanitation requirements.
h. Theater geography. S-2 should instruct on
friendly and enemy terrain in the theater, and
explain the principal channels of communication.
i. Prisoner of war procedure. All personnel
must be taught what to do in the event of
capture.
j. Captured Enemy Materiel and Documents.
All personnel will be taught the significance of
captured materiel and documents and instructed
to give such documents and materiel to S-2
as quickly as possible. In ~oordination with
Technical Air Intelligence Officers, S-2 will
make arrangements to have guards supplied for
crashed or captured en,~my planes and materiel.
69
1
�CHAPTER X
Special instructions about, and warnings
against, souvenir hunting will be given.
3. CONTINUING INDOCTRINATION.
S-2 will be obliged to continue in the theater
certain instruction which he carried on during
the unit's training period. Among the subjects are:
a. Aircraft~ naval and armored vehicle recognztzon. Particular emphasis will be given to
Allied and enemy types of planes, ships and
tanks which the unit is likely to encounter.
Combat experience has proved that recognition training in the theater is of the most vital
importance and must not be slighted or minimized or ever discontinued.
b. Enemy uniform and rank recognition.
Colored posters and, when possible, actual
enemy uniforms will make S-2's instruction on
enemy uniforms more interesting and more
effective.
c. Review of military situation and current
events. Periodic discussions of the progress
of the war in all theaters, illustrating the
talks with maps and pictures, are invaluable
in aiding the morale of all personnel. Each
presentation may have to be repeated several
times to accommodate and reach all personnel.
A well-maintained library of current books,
periodicals, War Department and other publications with attractive displays of intelligence
material should be at all times accessible. The
displays should include newspaper clippings,
illustrations from periodicals, photos taken during and after missions.
d. Talks on experiences and combat lessons.
S-2 should arrange for occasional talks by experienced American and Allied personnel on _
all variety of combat subjects, including tactics,
personal battle and war experiences, and the
lessons learned and procedures adopted.
e. Indoctrination of replacement personnel.
As new personnel arrive to serve as replacements, it is the duty of S-2 to bring them up
to date on the situation, and to acquaint them
with experiences of the unit.
4. SPECIAL INDOCTRINATION OF COMBAT CREWS. S-2, in cooperation with S-3,
will have a special responsibility for indoctrination of newly-assigned combat crews. Among
the major subjects for special study are:
70
THEATER INDOCTRINATION
a. Enemy air tactics. S-2 will usually prefer
to discuss enemy tactics in cooperation with
S-3; he may also invite experienced combat
officers to speak on this important subject, or
may arrange for flying officers of other American
or Allied units to instruct in air tactics.
b. Target study. Study of likely targets by
combat crews should be continuous and so intensive in character that pre-mission briefing
on that subject need not be elaborate. In this.
constant study the subjects covered should include the strategic and tactical importance of
targets, routes to and from them, the surrounding terrain, types of defenses, use of perspective
target charts, etc.
c. Enemy antiaircraft defenses. S-2 should
explain enemy antiaircraft defenses, u;ing aH
possible maps and photographic material.
d. Evasion and escape. The technique
procedure of evasion and escape must
handled with secrecy. In most theaters,
Force headquarters personnel will cover
subject on request from S-2. Under no
cumstances must this training be ne_glected.
and
be
Air
this.
czr-•
e. Geography of the area. It is vitally important that combat crews and newly arrived
intelligence personnel should be instructed in
the geography of the territory, both friendly
and enemy, in which they are to operate. They
should be acquainted with the importance and
location of our targets, the relationship of primary to alternate targets, and the various key
points in the area as well as the pos,sible routes.
of escape from enemy to friendly territory.
5. SPECIAL INDOCTRINATION OF INTELLIGENCE SECTION PERSONNEL. S-2
will continue the indoctrination of the intelligence section in combat intelligence duties, of
which the following are the most important:
a. Principles of briefing and interrogation.
Every officer in the intelligence section should
be able to brief and interrogate. In addition,
enlisted personnel should be trained to assist in
the briefing and interrogation of crews.
b. Specialization. While expecting the officers.
in his section to be jack-of-all-trades in intelligence, S-2 will be wise to encourage each to
specialize on some particular intelligence function such as air tactics, flak, dummies or decoys.
c. USAAF. While intelligence is concerned
primarily with the enemy, S-2 must make cer-
C
�·CHAPTER X
tain that all members of his section know the
organization of our own Air Forces, its tactics
and operations.
d. Interpretation of maps, photographs, bomb
impact jJlots. The chief tools of intelligence are
maps and aerial photographs. Each member of
the section must be checked and refreshed
periodically on their uses.
e. Principles of combat intelligence. The
staff of the intelligence section must be thoroughly indoctrinated in, and continually reminded of, the purpose, principles and functions
of combat intelligence. At frequent section
meetings S-2 should discuss the operations of
the section, the work it does and the mechanics
of performing that v.rork.
6. INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS.
In a
theater of operations hours of instruction are
carefully allocated and each is closely related
to imminent combat operations. S-2, therefore,
must be particularly diligent in seeing that such
periods of instruction are of maximum effectiveness.
a. Planning. Improvisation should be reduced to the minimum. S-2 should determine
immediately upon arrival what directives, policies, or other considerations governing trajning
must be followed in the theater. The hours
available for intelligence training and how they
coordinate with other activities must be ascertained. Availability of facilities and instructors must be given careful consideration, and
all other factors which will effect the training
schedule should be listed. With these facts at
hand, S-2 should put in graphic form a training program to indicate the over-all plan, together with a specific class schedule for the first
week or for any length of time that appears
practical. ·w hen these plans have been ap-
THEATER INDOCTRINATION
proved, S-2 should make and confirm all necessary arrangements with instructors and with
those in charge of facilities.
b. Instruction. S-2 should feel a true sense
of responsibility in maintaining the highest
possible standards of instruction. The best
method of presentation for each subject should
be selected carefully. The roundtable, informal
panel discussion, question period, training film,
demonstration, or other techniques often may
be used to advantage and frequently are preferable to the lecture. Whatever the type of
presentation, each class period should receive
ample advance preparation. The instructor
should select pertinent material, organize it
well, and present it with enthusiasm and clarity.
Training aids should not be neglected. At an
early date S-2 must determine what aids are
available in the theater and take steps to obtain
them. He should not hesitate to construct his
own, if they are not otherwise available or if
special aids seem applicable.
c. The follow-up. Good instruction extends
beyond the classroom period. S-2 should realize
his opportunity to conduct informal training
outside the classroom and to provide "refresher"
instruction for courses which have been formally
concluded. The following are among the ways
jn which the follow-up may be conducted: informal discussions and conversations; contests
and games, utilizing course material; ungraded
quizes such as a daily recognition problem;
easily available reading material, displays, posters, and slogans; motion pictures with voluntary
attendance; current developments presented in
prepared mimeographed materials; training devices such as peep-boxes and models; voluntary
class review sessions; short review lecturettes to
be given as opportunities arise.
71
�Chapter XI
)
PHOTO INTELLIGENCE
•
Paragraph
Capabilities of Photo Intelligence
Photo Intelligence Reports .... . . ...... . . ... .
2
Use of Photo Intelligence Reports by S-2 .. . . .
Bombardment Photography .. ..... . ......... .
Stereovision . .. . .......... . . . . . .... . ............ .
3
4
5
Scale
6
Marginal Information
...... . ......... .. . •.... . ........ . ..... . .
1. CAPABILITIES OF PHOTO INTELLIGENCE. Sixty percent of Allied intelligence
has come from properly interpreted photographs
of German and Japanese held areas. In some
theaters, particularly in the Pacific, over ninety
percent of Allied intelligence is based upon information gained from aerial photographs.
Some of the more important types of this intelligence are:
a. Location, strength and movement of enemy
ground forces.
b. Defenses, particularly those against aircraft.
c. Size and movement of enemy convoys and
naval forces.
d. Location and condition of enemy airdromes, types and number of aircraft employed
on them.
e. Target information used in the construction of objective folders and in keeping them
current.
f. Enemy camouflage, decoys and dummies.
g. New types of enemy equipment, especially
air and naval.
h. Effectiveness -of bombing missions against
all types of enemy targets.
i. Terrain studies for airborne and amphibious attacks, for ground forces, and for
navigators and bombardiers.
2. PHOTO INTELLIGENCE REPORTS.
Photo intelligence reports are one of S-2's most
valuable sources of information; he should
know the nature of each.
a. The general report is written for an area
and based upon all available photographs of
72
I
. . ..... .
7
Page
72
72
72
73
73
73
74
that area. General reports contain full description of terrai~ and defenses, location and brief
description of enemy camps and airdromes, location and current condition of railroads and
other channels of communications, the precise
location of strategic industrial plants. All this·
information usually is related to a map by grid
coordinates.
b. Flak reports indicate the location of enemy
antiaircraft devices in an area. The grid positions of ant~aircraft guns, automatic weapons,
searchlights, sound detectors, radar, and barrage
balloons are given.
· c. Airdrome reports either are detailed studies
of enemy airdromes, their defenses and equipment, or are summaries giving location and
condition of all known enemy air installations
within an area.
d. Shipping reports either are detailed studies
of port facilities or are periodic reports, usually
monthly, of the movement of enemy shipping
in an area.
e. Strike attack reports include bomb impact plots· and are the initial evaluation of the
success of a mission.
f. Damage assessment reports are detailed,
final records of damage wrought by one or several missions over a single target.
g. Special terrain reports are prepared for
airborne attacks and give location and detailed
description of dropping zones and their immediate vicinity.
3. USE OF PHOTO INTELLIGENCE REPORTS BY S-2. S-2 will use the information
�PHOTO INTELLIGENCE
CHAPTER XI
(
in photo intelligence reports to amplify his
knowledge of the enemy, and for the following
specific duties:
a. Instruction of crews in target identification.
Annotated photographs that accompany photo
intelligence reports are ideal for such instruction. In his teaching, S-2 should use rivers,
configuratio~ of woods and clearings and shapes
of cities or ports as identifi~ation points, rather
than small details like roads and hills.
b. Briefing and interrogation. If crews have
been taught previously to identify specific
targets, there need be no detailed review of
target identification at the time of the mission
briefing. S-2 need only display the familiar
photographs of the target and give a rapid review of the identifying features. The same
photographs should be used during interrogation to determine precise locations mentioned
by the crew. Some commanding officers insist
that the best available photograph of the target,
and its surroundings, be given the crew to take
with them on the mission.
c. Determination of bombing success. Air
crews frequently are so busy over the target that
they bring away varying impressions of the success of their effort. A good S-2 is cautious with
his estimate of the mission's success until he
has seen the strike photographs and the bomb
impact plot. When the bombing was good and
there is photographic evidence of satisfactory
destruction, such photographic evidence should
be posted where the crews can see it; strike
photographs alongside annotated damage assessment photographs are good for morale. Photographic evidence of bombs off the target should
also be posted; such failures frequently teach
valuable lessons.
within or near the target area. These reports
are a preliminary statement of the success or
failure of a mission.
b. Damage assessment reports. Definitive assessment of damage is made by specially trained
interpreters at higher headquarters where all
evidence is studied, weighed and plotted. This
final report summarizes the mass of data and
recounts in detail the damage to specific types
of military installations, industrial plants, railroad centers, public buildings, residential areas.
These reports with annotated photographs are
sent down from higher headquarters to groups
and squadrons. S-2 must familiarize himself
with them and be able to point out to his crews
the difference between minor and major damage.
He must recognize with certainty the honeycombed character of an area devastated by incendiaries, and the shattered and whitened
appearance of destruction brought about by
high explosive bombs.
4. BOMBARDMENT PHOTOGRAPHY. In
order that S-2 be able to use photo intelligence
reports on bombardment, he should understand
how these reports are prepared.
a. Strike attack reports. Prepared by photo
interpreters assigned to bombardment aviation,
these reports are a compilation of all information gathered from photographs taken from the
bombing planes during a mission. This photographic evidence of the individual strikes enables the plotter to spot each impact on a
master chart or enlarged photograph of the
target area taken before the attack. After
duplications are eliminated, the strike attack
report shows the actual number of bomb bursts
6. SCALE. In order to relate photographs
and maps with each other, S-2 must know how
to calculate the scale of a photograph. Once he
knows the scale. he can then calculate the dimensions of any object on the photograph.
a. There are three basic formulae for determining the scale of photographs:
5. STEREOVISION. Before any photo interpretation can be made, the interpreter must
understand stereovision, the ability to see depth.
The more important functions of stereovision
are,
a. To determine terrain relief or the relative
height of buildings and other objects.
b. To determine shapes that are not apparent on the flat surface of a single photograph.
These functions, in addition to other uses, enable the interpreter to:
( 1) Disclose camouflage.
(2) Identify aircraft, ships and military
ins tall a tions.
·
(3) Locate the vital parts of a target for
bombardment.
(4) Assess bomb damage.
(1) RF (representative fraction)
FL (focal length of camera lens in inches)
H (height of plane above ground in inches)
Example: The RF of a photograph taken
by a camera with a 24" FL at 30,000' 1s
RF =---2_4_ _
30,000 X 12
2
30,000
15,000
73
�CHAPTER XI
PHOTO INTELLIGENCE
Photo scales determined from altitude and
focal length are only as accurate as the altitude
statement. The RF for pictures taken with
standard cameras can be calculated quickly by
applying these multiplication factors to the
altitude expressed in feet.
Lens
Factor
6"
2.0
12"
1.0
14"
0.857
11
20
o.6
(or divide by 2)
24"
0.5
36"
o.333 (or divide by 3)
40"
0.3
(2) Scale may be determined by the relationship between the distance on the photograph and the actual distance on the ground:
RF
=
Distance on photograph
Distance on the ground
Example: The wing span of a JU 52 measures .04 7' on a photograph of unknown scale.
The actual span of a JU 52 is 95.5'
RF==--, o r - - 2033
2000
(In this case, as usual, the denominator is
adjusted to the nearest hundred.)
(3) A proportion exists between an identical distance on a photograph and map and
the scales of the photo and map.
Distance on map
RF of Map
Example: The distance between two points
found on a vertical photograph and on a map
measures .36' on the photograph. The distance
on the map measures .065'. The map scale is
1: 50,000. The scale of the photograph is determined as follows:
.36
RF -
.065
50,000
.065 X 50,000
.36
------=RF
.065 X 50,000
- - , or - 9030
9000
74
=
RF of photograph
)
a. Improper or inadequate titling of photographs may render them valueless. As prescribed
in AAF Regulation 95-7 dated 27 Jan. 1944,
the following information will be shown on
every photographic negative in the manner and
order indicated below-material within brackets
will not be found on negatives or prints but is
for descriptive purposes only:
137 PS
(Organization)
4M109
(Year & Mission)
11-V
(Roll No. &
Camera Position)
121
(Negative No.)
b. Explanation:
(1) 137 PS-Photo made by 137th Photo
Squadron.
(2) 4M109-1944 Mission No. 109.
(3) 11-V-11,
camera position.
.047 47
RF= - - - - - 95.5
95,500
Distance on photograph
RF of photograph
7. MARGINAL INFORMATION. On every
photograph is certain marginal information
which S-2 must understand.
the
roll
number;
V,
the
(4) 121-Negative No. in Roll 11.
c. Further annotation for intelligence purposes:
12:28: 1330
(month, day, time)
(Cataloging
as in a.)
0-45 0
(type of photo
(Oblique · 45 °))
Euna, New Guinea
(Descriptive title)
12:20,000
(focal length
& altitude)
842S 14826E
(Latitude &
Longitude)
SECRET
(Classification)
(For a detailed description, see AAF Regulation 95-7 .)
d. R.A.F. lettering of negatives is
simpler and is as follows:
5026
(Negative
No.)
E/ 269
(Mission No.)
30/ 9/ 43
(Day, month,
year)
F / 36
(focal
length)
much
1 P.R.U.
(Photo
Unit)
(
�.
(
Chapter XII
CAPTURE INTELLIGENCE
•
Paragraph
I
Definition ......................................... • . • • • • • • • •
Technical Air Intelligence .................................... .
2
Prisoner of War Intelligence
3
....... . ................... .
1. DEFINITION.
The term "Capture Intelligence" is applied generically to both Technical Air Intelligence and Prisoner of War Interrogation.
2. TECHNICAL AIR INTELLIGENCE. a.
Technical Air Intelligence is derived from examination and analysis of captured, crashed or
otherwise acquired articles of enemy equipment. Analysis of such materiel reveals the
enemy's technical progress and methods, his
new and improved aircraft armament, weapons,
ammunition and equipment, and betrays his
shortages of critical materials or equipment,
thus indicating his potential future production
of aircraft, tanks, guns and other materiel.
• b. While S-2 of group or squadron is not
expected to usurp A-2's responsibility for examining or analyzing captured enemy materiel,
he is expected to train all personnel to guard
captured or crashed enemy aircraft and air materiel, and to make certain that no one has
access to such materiel prior to the arrival of
qualified technical air intelligence officers. Particular care will be taken to protect the materiel against souvenir hunters.
c. The following are the chief sources of
Technical Air Intelligence: ( 1) foreign technical press, (2) agents in enemy and neutral
countries, (3) prisoners of war, (4) captured
documents, (5) captured enemy air equipment.
3. PRISONER Of WAR INTELLIGENCE.
Prisoner of War Intelligence is derived from
interrogation of prisoners and examination of
captured documents. The term "prisoner of
war" is construed to include not only captured
enemy personnel, but also deserters. repatriates
to our own forces, travelers, and members of the
Page
75
75
75
local population who may possess information
of value. The term "documents" is construed
to mean maps, sketches, photographs, orders,
tactical and technical manuals and instructions,
code books, war diaries, newspapers, notebooks,
service records, payrolls, uniforms and individual equipment, post cards and letters, records
of headquarters, post and telegraph offices, telephone exchanges, banks, police stations, municipal and government offices, manufacturers'
nameplates or any other identifying markings
on materiel.
a. Responsibility for interrogation of prisoners
of war and examination of their documents
rests with special interrogation officers. S-2 of
group or squadron is not expected to interrogate, but he is responsible for the following
prisoner of war duties:
( 1) .Train all personnel in the correct
handling of prisoners and captured documents.
(2) Make certain, if possible, that an enemy
airman does not destroy his crashed plane or
its contents, or destroy the documents on his
person.
(3) Isolate all prisone!s.
(4) Segregate prisoners immediately into at
least three groups: officers, non-commissioned
officers and enlisted men; and where possible,
as with the crew of an enemy aircraft, segregate
each individual prisoner until interrogation is
completed.
(5) Search all prisoners and turn over their
possessions to a qualified interrogation officer.
(6) Keep prisoners under guard and isolate
them from our own personnel.
(7) Notify higher headquarters.
75
�)
CHAPTER XII
(8) Prisoner of War Intelligence "Don'ts":
(a) Don't fail to disarm PW and search
his person for documents or arms.
(b) Don't fail to segregate PW immediately upon capture into separate groups of
officers, NCOs, privates, deserters, civilians.
(c) Don't permit segregated groups to
get close enough to allow officers or NCOs to
communicate with privates.
(d) Don't ..permit PW to destroy documents or uniform insignia.
(e) Don't fail to search the site of capture.
(f) Don't fail to forward all documents
along with prisoners.
(g) Don't remove steel helmets and gas
masks from PW.
76
CAPTURE INTELLIGENCE
(h) Don't permit souvenir hunters or
curiosity seekers to approach PW.
(i) Don't talk to PW.
(j) Don't permit PW to talk.
(k) Don't give PW anything to eat or
smoke, or permit others to do so, if P"\i\T can
be interrogated within a few hours.
(l) Don't permit anyone other than mterrogators to ask questions of P"\i\T.
(m) Don't lose any time in getting mterrogation officers to PW. Arrange the contact
before the shock of battle wears off.
(n) Don't attempt interrogation of PW
or examination of documents except at times of
extreme emergency-whenever possible leave
such duties entirr:h' to trained interrogators.
�(
Chapter XIII
COUNTERINTELLIGENCE
•
Para gra ph
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I
Responsibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2
Counterintelligence and Security Measures·
..........
3
Security of Communication . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4
Breaches of Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5
Counter Propaganda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6
1. GENERAL
Counterintelligence is the
concealment from the enemy of information
regarding air si tuation, intentions and capabilities; or the creation and dissemination to the
enemy of false information.
2. RESPONSIBILITY. a. S-2 supervises the
activity 0£ the unit counterintelligence officer
and in the absence of such officer himself acts
in that capacity.
b. The counterintelligence officer of a tactical unit is primarily concerned with security
and is frequently referred to, or designated as,
security officer.
c. General measures of counterintelligence
and security are set forth in FM 30-25, "Military Intelligence, Counterintelligence," "The
Air Force in Theaters of Operations, Organization and Functions," TM 30-215, "Counterintelligence Corps," and AR 380-5, "Safeguarding
Military Information."
d. Certain counterintelligence and security
functions may be vested in other officers of the
command. In such case, establishment and
maintenance by counterintelligence officer 0£
close liaison with those officers is of prime
importance and a direct responsibility. The
counterintelligence officer should ascertain by
informal discussion, but never by inspection or
inspection technique, that adequate protective
measures have been taken; by informal suggestions to those officers, he should endeavor to correct deficiencies. In the event of failure to obtain
such rectification, pertinent facts should be invited to the attention of the Commanding
Officer.
Page
77
77
77
78
78
79
3. COUNTERINTELLIGENCE AND SECURITY MEASURES. a. General measures
of counterintelligence and security include:
(1) Concealment of actual situation, intentions and capabilities.
(2) Preparation and supervision of Counterintelligence Plan (FM 30-25, Page 2, Par. 4).
(3) Preparation and supervision of Unit
Security Plan. (Note: Security Plan of S-2
covers security from sabotage, espionage, and
other subversive activities of enemy agents as
distinguished from the Defense Plan of S-3
against organized attack by land, sea or air.)
(4) Consistent and continuous instruction
of unit personnel in:
(a) Counterintelligence measures.
(b) Maintenance of security (AR 380-5,
"Safeguarding Military Information"). S-2 must
have all commissioned and other personnel who
handle classified documents read the Espionage
Act. Such personnel must be thoroughly familiar with the provisions of AR 380-5.
(5) Protection of classified materiel and
documents, including maps, photographs, codes;
preparation of plans for their removal or destruction in emergencies.
(6) Maintenance of adequate guard at all
unit installations, with a minimum n u mber of
entrances thereto and the exclusion of unauthorized persons by a proper pass system.
(7) Control of civilians in combat theater,
an d control of visitors to military establishments.
(8) Prevention of "Fifth Colu mn" activities; guard of vulnerable points and vital equip-
77
�ttHAPTER XIII
:ment against sabotage.
(g) Signal security (See Par. 4).
( 1o) Press and radio censorship; control of
,correspondents.
( 11) Unit censorship, and investigation of
·violations thereof.
(12) Counter propaganda (See Par. 6).
(13) Investigation of all cases involving sub·versive activity, including espionage, sabotage
~and disaffection of personnel in the unit.
(14) Initiation of loyalty investigations as
=required by "'\t\Tar Department regulations.
b. Counterintelligence measures against aerial •
-:reconnaissance:
(1) Frequent aerial photographs and photo
interpretations of S-2's own base. What we see
the enemy will see.
(2) Use of concealment afforded by natural cover.
(3) Camouflage.
(4) Camouflage discipline: Avoid making
new tracks, paths and trails.
(5) Dispersal.
(a) Aircraft.
(b) Supplies, equipment, ammunition
;and fuel.
( c) Troop quarters.
(6) Dummy air bases and landing strips.
(7) Dummy aircraft.
(8) Traffic control.
(g) Smoke control.
( 10) Blackouts.
( 11) Movements under cover of darkness.
( 12) Ruses to deceive the enemy.
(13) Fighter patrol against enemy reconnaissance.
( 14) Smoke screens.
(15) Dummies and decoys.
COUNTERINTELLIGENCE
( 1) Instruction of combat crews in rules of
international warfare.
(2) Training in "name, rank and serial
number."
(3) Insistence on value of bits and pieces of
information.
(4) Instruction in enemy prisoner-of-war
interrogation tactics.
e. Counter measures against technical intelligence of the enemy. (See Chapter 12, par. 2.):
(1) D ivest crews of personal documents.
(2) Aerial security.
(a) Leave objective folders behind.
(b) Avoid taking friendly area maps into
the aircraft.
(c) Use edible paper for essential mformation.
(3) Destroy or remove documents from air
bases to be abandoned.
(4) Equipment identification security.
(a) Limit identifying marks and identification tags.
( b) Deface marks.
(5) Use of weighted containers for sinking
documents when operating in over-water areas.
(6) Destruction of aircraft, if capture is
imminent.
(a) Bombsight.
(b) R adar and other secret equipment.
,1ces.
4. SECURITY OF COMMUNICATION.
a. Telephone lines are easily tapped, and teletype systems are subject to compromise. Radio
and wireless messages are open, and the enemy
will be listening.
b. Messages of secret or confidential nature
should be sent by courier.
c. Necessity for speed in communication will
compel the use of radio, teletypewriter or telephone. For the telephone, a "scrambler" will
increase security. In teletypewriter or radio, a
variety of codes and ciphers may be used,
though messages should be sent in the clear
whenever speed of transmittal is of more significance than secrecy.
(5) Outposts to detect patrols and raids.
(6) Cooperation with -Aircraft Warning
Service (protection against enemy aircraft and
paratroops).
d. Counter measures against interrogation o[
prisoners of war by the enemy:
5. BREACH ES OF SECURITY. a. Reports
and prosecutions. (1) Any person in the military service or in its employ who may have
knowledge of the loss or subjection to compromise of a secret or confidential document
or article of materiel will promptly report that
c. Counter measures against enemy ground
-..reconnaissance in force:
( 1) Concealment.
(2) Counter reconnaissance.
(3) Liaison with adjacent units.
(4) Cooperation with AA intelligence serv-
78
(
C
�CHAPTER XIII
(
\
Jact to the custodian of the document or mate~riel. By the fastest means available, the proper
,commanding officer will notify the issuing office
of the loss or subjection to compromise of a
·secret or registered item, or confidential oper.ational plans, codes, ciphers, and weapons or
,equipment of vital importance to current or
.future operations, and will then in the case of
:a secret or confidential item make a thorough
.investigation of the circumstances, fix the re·sponsibility, and send to the Adjutant General,
"through military channels, a report with his
recommendation in the case.
(2) All persons connected with the military
service who receive information of proposed inland or overseas movements, classified as secret,
,confidential or restricted,- of organizations,
,detachments or individuals, are forbidden to
make public the details of such movements.
·Commanding officers of troops or individuals
,m aking such movements are responsible that
-such troops or individuals are instructed as provided in AR 380-5, advised of its application,
-and warned of the danger involved in leakage
of information regarding troop movements.
-(Par. 64, AR 380-5).
(3) Officers, enlisted men and civilian employees are reminded that greatest care must be
-exercised to avoid disclosing any information
COUNTERINTELLIGENCE
concerning official matters to anyone outside
official circles (see AAF Memorandum No. 41-1,
July 16, 1941).
(4) AAF Memorandum No. 42-5, February
2, 1942, directs that provisions of FM 30-25, particularly Pars. 6a) 7a and 44d) e) and f) again be
brought to the attention of all personnel of the
Army Air Forces, and that they be cautioned
again of the seriousness of any breach of these
regulations.
(5) Whenever any member of the military
service, regardless of rank, ·commits a breach of
security, a report of that offense should be made
to his commanding officer for appropriate action.
6. COUNTER PROPAGANDA. The dissemination of propaganda normally is the function of higher echelons. In his own unit,
however, S-2 may be called on to combat the
enemy's propaganda. The best general defense
against enemy propaganda · and rumors is to
keep the unit as fully informed as military security will permit. Personnel generously and accurateiy informed, and indoctrinated as outlined in Chapter X, "Theater Indoctrination,"
will have greater resistance to enemy propaganda than those left to draw their conclusions
from rumors.
79
�(
Chapter XIV
PUBLIC RELATIONS
•
Paragraph
Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I
80
Responsibi.lity of S-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
General Procedure ...... ,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Relations with Local Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Visitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2
3
4
5
80
80
80
80
1. POLICY. National policy on the release of
war information was stated March 1942 by the
Committee on War Information:
"It is the policy of this Government to make
public the maximum of information on military, naval, production and other matters concerning the war, which can be revealed without
giving aid to the enemy. This policy is based
on the firm conviction that the people of :i
democracy are entitled to know the facts,
whether they are good or bad, cheerful or
depressing. On the other hand, the people will willingly forego knowledge of those facts, the
revelation of which will help the enemy harm
us."
2. RESPONSIBILITY OF S-2. In most
theaters public relations has been designated as
a function of intelligence. If no special Public
Relations Officer is available, S-2 acts in that
capacity.
3. GENERAL PROCEDURE. News coverage
of his unit and dissemination of this news to
accredited press and radio representatives is the
duty of the PRO.
a. In combat areas, censorship of news releases
and of photographs is the duty of the theater
80
Page
censor. The PRO can help by knowing censorship regulations and advising correspondents.
b. Knowledge of correspondents' technical
problems, deadlines and cable facilities, will aid
in a fair and harmonious distribution of releases.
c. Public Relations "Don'ts":
(1) Don't lie to a correspondent. Better
tell him the whole story and ask his cooperation.
(2) Don't play favorites among the correspondents.
(3) Don't get yourself irt the news, favorably or otherwise. The good PRO has a passion for anonymity.
4. RELATIONS WITH LOCAL POPULATION. Soon after arrival in the area thePRO will:
a. Visit the local newspaper and radio offices.
b. Establish liaison with civic leaders, municipal officials and police.
5. VISITORS. It is the PRO's duty to,
arrange for entertainment of distinguished visitors. Before any visitor arrives, the PRO must
determine from the commanding officer what
restrictions are to apply; if the visitor is to beshown all or only certain specified parts of the
installation.
�Chapter XV
(
WAR ROOMS
•
Definition and Function
General Procedure ....
Preparation of Situation
Intelligence Summaries
. ..... ·. . . .. . . ... .... . . ... . .... .. .. .... .
. . . ... .. .. . . ... . ........ .. . . . . . . . ..... .
Maps .... ....... .. . . . ...... .. .... . ... .
. ...... .. . ... . .. . . . . .. . . ....... ~ . .. . . .
1. DEFINITION AND FUNCTION.
War
rooms are centers for disseminating information,
usually of the current situation in one or all
theaters of operation. War rooms-sometimes
called Air Rooms-are found at Air Force and
Command headquarters, occasionally at Wings.
Below ,!\Tings, the counterpart of the war room
is the situation room.
(
2. GENERAL PROCEDURE. a. Oral Presentations should be:
(1) Concise, accurate, and packed with information.
(2) Carefully and thoroughly organized (a
written outline will help clarify and emphasize
points to be discussed).
(3) Given in third person and without
expressing personal opinions.
(4) Delivered without the use of extensive
notes and with the major points emphasized to
provide variety and color, but never over-dramatized.
b. Indoctrination in Theater Geography:
During training at domestic stations and in the
foreign theater, it is the intelligence officer's
obligation to familiarize unit personnel with
the geography of the prospective combat areas.
,!\Tar Room lectures on theater geography should
include discussions on the following points:
( 1) General and economic geography.
(2) Historical and political background.
(3) Peoples and languages.
(4) Customs and general Jiving conditions.
(5) Military significance of the areas with
the strategic and tactical importance of each.
(6) Communications.
3. PREPARATION OF SITUATION
MAPS. a. Most published maps, no matter
· what their scale or type, do not constitute a
satisfactory background for the visual presentation of a situation as desired in a war room. The
map used for such presentation should contain
Section
I
2
3
4
Page
81
81
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81
only information pertinent to the situation as
it exists at the moment.
(1) Situation maps for war room presentations can be made by projecting any small mapnewsmap, road map, or section of a map-from ·
a balopticon onto a sheet of paper tacked to
a wall. As much of the image can be traced as
is required, and the map can be made as detailed as desired. By this method a map in complete topographic relief can be prepared to a
scale of 1: 1,000, 000 from a small contour map,
whose scale may be 1: 15,000,000.
(2) If no balopticon is available, draw a
grid of small rectangles on the map to be enlarged. A grid is then drawn proportionally on
a large sheet of paper-if the second map is to
be twice the size of the original, the rectangles
on the second will be twice the size of those on
the first. The detail appearing in each rectangle is then drawn in freehand.
(3) Suggestions for preparing maps:
(a) Pastels or colored _ chalks, sprayed
with fixatif to prevent rubbing, are the easiest
mediums with which to work. Colors are easily
mixed and mis takes easily corrected. Large
areas of a solid color can be done in tempera
or showcard color, applied with a brush.
(b) Keep the background color weak;
then whatever color is used in posting the situation will have added strength. Dark water
areas will throw the land masses in to relief.
(c) Do not clutter a map with place
names. Use location symbols for all places other
than key cities. When other names are needed,
they can be lettered on a strip of paper and
stapled to the map whenever needed.
4. INTELLIGENCE SUMMARIES. A ~umber of intelligence summaries both domestic
and foreign are available, and every effort
should be made to secure those to which your
organization is entitled. (See Bibliography.)
81
�(
Chapter XVI
RECOGNITION TRAINING
•
Purpose
Paragraph
I
. ... ... ................................. . ... .
Progressive Training
........ . .... . ...... .
Preparing a Schedule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. ......
Training Procedure . ... ·...... . .... ..... .... . ................
Types of Lectures ......... . . .. . .. .. . . ......... . .. . .........
Training Devices .. ........ . ..... ... ................ . .......
1
.
.
.
.
Naval Vessels .... . ......... .. .. . .. . ... .. . . .. .. ....... . . . ... .
Armored Vehicles . ... . ...... . . ... ... ... .. . .. . . . ..... . ...... .
Field Balopticon ... . . . ... . ... . ..... . . . . .. . . ..... . ...... . .... .
Shadowgraph ...... . . . ............ . .... . . . ..... . .......... . .
1. PURPOSE.
Combat personnel need to
recognize aircraft instantly and accurately from
any angle at range, so the good S-2 tirelessly
trains his crews in recognition. He understands
that ability to know the enemy instantly may
enable his crews to gain tactical advantage and
ultimate victory. He knows, too, that the gunner who recognizes fast-moving airplanes is
not likely to shoot down some friendly aircraft
that suddenly comes within view.
2. PROGRESSIVE TRAINING. It is essential that training be progressive, starting with
silhouettes and simple, close-up views and working systematically to difficult ones at range.
Training s_hould be continuous, as constant
association increases proficiency.
3. PREPARING A SCHEDULE. First, assess
proficiency of crew members to determine the
type of instruction needed. This is done with
tests on the flash trainer, balopticon or shadowgraph. Simple, medium, and difficult views
should be shown and results analyzed. Avoid
elementary instruction on aircraft that are well
known to all, but realize it is more important
to have a thorough knowledge of a few types
that inevitably will be encountered than a
scanty knowledge of many. Conclude every
period with a short spotting test and record
the scores to check individual progress.
4. TRAINING PROCEDURE. a. Gen eral
Approach. Reasons for inability accurately to
82
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3
4
5
6
7
8
Page
82
82 ·
82
82
82
83
83
83
84
85
recognize aircraft are ordinarily two-fold: ( 1 )~
lack of interest; (2) lack of knowledge as to
what to look for or how to distinguish aircraft
differences. In recognition training, therefore,
continuous emphasis should be placed on: (1)interest stories about the aircraft; (2) a logical
and descriptive style of presentation.
b. Perspective. The three basic silhouettes-head-on, plan and side-cover the fundamental
or "blueprint" views of any aircraft. Most wing
surfaces, however, are not flat but have dihedral
in part or in all the span. This creates definite
distortion in perspective views. The greaterthe angle of dihedral the greater the distortion,
but fortunately the rules for it are constant:
if viewed from below the wings seem to be·
pulled towards the spotter; if viewed from:
above they appear to be pushed away. Indemonstrating aircraft this fact should always
be emphasized for a quicker appreciation of
difficult angle shots.
5. TYPES OF LECTURES. a. Elementary.
First, S-2 must concentrate on "selling" the
particular aircraft .to his crews. He must em-phasize its name and identify its function in
the day by day progress of the war. Try to giveit personality. Use a logical sequence of presentation in order to ouild up the various component parts into one complete whole. (Headon view: fuselage, wings (eng.), and tail. Plan
view: nose (eng.), wings, fuselage and tail. Side
view: nose, fuselage and fin.) Concentrate on
(
�CHAPTER XVI
(
outlines and emphasize distinctive features with
memory aids and vivid comparisons to common
shapes. Weave in pertinent-humorous if possible-stories about the aircraft. Use six to
eight photographs to demonstrate perspective
views. Finish with a spotting test including
views of the aircraft just presented.
b. Intermediate. Start with a few range shots
on the balopticon to bring out shapes in distant views. Follow with the shadowgraph,
manipulating the model to show practically all
views. Finally, give a few views at slow exposure. Always finish period with spotting test
on shadowgraph including aircraft just presented.
(
c. Advanced. No matter how thorough the
presentation has been in the earlier stages, there
is sure to be some confusion in the more important types. Clear up these difficulties. Contrast
two aircraft by presenting them in similar
angles of view emphasizing the differences. With
most important aircraft it is essential to go into
detail; emphasis should be put on the tail units
because the final clue to recognition is often
there, especially when the mass appreciation o(
the aircraft is similar. Finish all periods with
an advanced spotting test.
d. Maintenance. Once obtained, it is essential that advanced recognition standards be
maintained. Short periods up to two hours
weekly should be set aside for maintenance.
Difficult shots should be used for tests and new
tactics may be demonstrated and range estimation stressed. It is important to have some outside stimulation of interest in order to hold
attention. One of the best methods is to promote competitive spirit. Squadron and crew
competitions may be introduced. Colorful pictures, photographs, and silhouettes should be
available in alert room and models prominently
displayed. By using his initiative, S-2 can invent
other means of attracting interest.
6. TRAINING DEVICES. a. A varied assortment of recognition training devices may
be used. Each has its own particular value.
( 1) Balopticon. This is a device for projecting opaque objects, such as photographs,
onto a screen. It may be used for enlarging
silhouettes, maps, etc. It can be fitted with a
time shutter allowing exposures down to 1/100
of a second, and can be used for both initial
and advanced training by varying the size and
RECOGNITION TRAINING~
range of photographs. A homemade balopticon,
is easily constructed as illustrated on Page 84 ..
Various flying magazines offer an almost unlimited source of photographs.
(2) Flash Trainer. The primary purpose-·
of flash recognition is to force automatic and
instantaneous appreciation of overall shape of
an aircraft as opposed to identification which.
analyzes each feature in detail. This is accomplished through the projection of images flashed.
on the screen at split second intervals. The ·
necessary flash projector, screen, and slides maygenerally be obtained through regular squadron
channels.
(3) Shadowgraph. The shadowgraph is the-old device for throwing shadows onto a sheet
which are viewed by persons on the other side.
The shadow thrown by a good model on a flat
surface looks life-like and gives a more realistic~
representation of the aircraft in flight than the
model itself. Virtually any view or maneuver ·
may be demonstrated and the device is easy to
construct. Properly used, it has no superior.
(See Page 85 for details of construction.)
7. NAVAL VESSELS. a. Methods:
( 1) The methods used in teaching naval
recognition should be substantially the same
as those outlined for aircraft recognition.
(2) In addition to showing slides and pictures in the balopticon, the shadowgraph · may·
be used for models in silhouette. The lower ·
half of the screen may be entirely blacked out
and the model, when placed on a shelf behind _
the screen, will appear to be on the horizon.
The effects will be even more realistic if thesource of light is covered with several layers of
plasticele.
b. Recognition Features. Emphasis should_ .
be placed on outstanding recognition characteristics and not on minute details. The location of masses and their relation to each o·t herin the silhouette view of naval vessels is most
important and should be constantly emphasized.
Combat experience indicates that observation
of naval vessels usually takes place at an altitude of 1,000 to 6,000 feet and at a distance of
four to six miles. Thus, the angle of elevation
will be approximately 10 to 15 degrees, which
in effect gives a silhouette view.
8. ARMORED VEHICLES. The recognition•
£ea tures of armored vehicles are discussed in
Appendix L, Section II.
83;
�CHAPTER XVI
RECOGNITION TRAINING
PROJECTOR FOR USE IN THE FIELD
18 "
\PICTURE
io
VENT
VENT
With a box, a lens and a light source, a field balopticon can be built. The
sliding lens holder can be constructed from a cardboard mailing tube. A
hinged back for easy access is recommended. Attach to the back of the box
the image to be projected and adjust the lens for proper focus. While this
field balopticon is an excellent device for the projection of maps and line
drawings, it will give only a weak image of photographs unless the room in
which it is being used is fully blacked out. (Materials needed: plywood, 2
sockets, 2-150 watt bulbs, 3 1/i'' magnifying lens.)
84
�RECOGNITION TRAINING
'CHAPTER XVI
S/IAOOWCl</IP/-1 FOR USE IN THE FIELO
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85
�Chapter XVII .
UNIT HISTORY
WAR DIARY OR UNIT JOURNAL
•
Paragraph
I
Authority ... . . . ..... . ... ... .. . .......... ... . . ... .. . ... ..... .
Responsibility of S-2 . ... . . . . ... . ...... .. .. . . . ... .. . .. . .. . ... .
2
Importance of the Unit History . .. .. . . ... . . . .. . .. . ... ... . . . . . .
3
1. AUTHORITY.
AR 345-105 and other
pertinent directives (see also AAF Reg. 20-8,
Historical Officer Circulars, AG 320.21, AG
314.7, W 345-21-43, etc.) require the monthly forwarding of "historical data" to the Commanding
General, Army Air Forces. Special instructions
are issued in turn from the H istorical Division,
AC/ AS, Intelligence, and from intermediate
Historical Sections.
2 . R ESPO NSIBILITY O F S-2.
It is usually
the responsibility of S-2 to write the unit history: to collect the supporting documents including interviews and to forward them through
channels. The historical officer wherever possible should be experienced in research. He
must seek to weave together a complete and
accurate account of the life, problems, surroundings, and achievements of the men with
whom he serves. He should think of his history as the scientific analysis of his unit's part
in this war. His observations along with the
carefully selected documents or copies thereof
become a primai;-y source for the official history
of his organization.
3. IMPORTANCE OF THE UNIT HISTORY. At the February, 1944, AAF conference the following was said:
a. "Unit Histories with their supporting
documents are among the basic primary sources
for command or air force histories. They should
be monthly chronicles of accomplishments,
changes, and reason for change. Rather than
following some routine 'form' they should be
narrative accounts of major activities carried on
in fulfillment of the unit's chief mission. They
86
Page
86
86
86
should seek to present th e d ifficulties encountered, new techniques evolved, lessons learned.
They should contain the views and designs of
the commanding officers and th eir staff . . .
b. "As to what supporting documents are
wanted, it must be recognized that no uniform
procedu re is in order. O ne very good rule to
follow is that the historical officer should append those documents or copies thereof which
substantiate key statements in h is history. If
he cannot obtain a copy of the needed document
or if such document is positively on file in
Washington, then he should carefully identify
it and where possible cite the organization to
·which it has been forwarded . . . Morning
reports and special orders as such are usually
not of sufficient importance to be included. The
historical officer will bear in mil).d always that
he is skimming the cream from the millions of
pieces of military papers extant . . .
c. "Given the full support of their commanding general and their staff they (historical officers) will produce a record of experiences, of
lessons learned, of unique services, of accomplishments, a history of which your air force
or command may in time be justly proud, and
one from which the Army Air Forces may derive the greatest possible benefit politically and
scientifically now and in the future.
d. "When the air staff, after important conferences, ordered the historical project to be
undertaken there were important thoughts behind that action . . . Not only did the staff
realize it would one day be called upon for
an accounting, but it was thinking of the fact
that in March, 1942, it had gained a new position in American military history. It must now
�CHAPTER XVI
(
record for whatever use might be made in the
future just how it used that position."
e. This setting down of the history of the
Air Forces, from squadron to headquarters, is
not a literary venture to provide entertaining
reading for future generations. This history,
if conscientiously prepared by every historical
officer from squadron to headquarters, will
afford a basis of endless military study; it will
be the textbook for future air strategists and
tacticians. Already high authority in the present
UNIT HISTORY
war has said that "practically every tenet of
air doctrine we are now formulating could have
been learned through the hard application of
current facts of military, naval and air history.
Respect for history would have prevented our
making some of the mistakes we have made."
f. The keeping of careful records for his unit
history may seem a burden to S-2 in the field,
but it is one of his truly important duties; it
may play its part in preventing costly mistakes
in the American Air Forces of the future.
87
�Chapter XVIII
INTELLIGENCE FUNCTIONS OF HIGHER ECHELONS
•
Section
Air Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bomber Command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bomber. Wing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
T here follow three check lists, outlining organization of intelligence sections in a typical
Air Force, Bomber Command and Bomber
W ing.
I: AIR FORCE
1.
Administration
2.
0 pera tional Intelligence- Geographic
3. Operational Intelligence-Target Information
4. Operational Intelligence-Liaison
5. Operational Intelligence-Current
6. Photo Intelligence
7. Technical Air Intelligence
8. Counterintelligence
g. Prisoner of War Interrogation
1 o. Training
11. Public Relations ·
12. Unit History
1.
ADMINISTRATION.
a. Correspondence and Publication. (1) Supervises, routes, distributes all correspondence
originating · in section.
(2) Receives, distributes all incoming correspondence and documents to proper sub-sections and individuals.
(3) Disseminates to higher, lower and
neighboring units, documents, reports, and publications originated in section or received from
other headquarters. Supervises packing and
mailing.
b. Files. (1) Maintains administrative records and correspondence files.
(2) Maintains journal of incoming and outgoing classified documents.
(3) Maintains inventory of classified documents.
-88
I
II
111
Page
88
90
93
c. Journals and Reports. (1) Maintains daily
journals.
(2) Prepares section activity reports and
special reports as directed.
d. Library.
(1) Maintains library of ARs,
AAFRs, FMs, TMs and military intelligence
documents.
(2) Procures publications desired by section.
e. Supervises reproduction of publications.
f. Requisitions and distributes office and special supplies for section.
g. Personnel.
(1) Coordinates and expedites procurement
of additional or replacement of intelligence personnel.
~) Assigns, supervises, and maintains records of all personnel of section.
(3) Prepares recommendations as to assignment of intelligence officers based on reported
needs of subordinate commands.
(4) Trains administrative personnel.
(5) Supervises duty rosters.
2. OPERATIONAL INTELLIGENCEGEOGRAPHIC.
a. Maps.
(1) Plans procurement and supply of maps
and charts for section and for subordinate units.
(2) Maintains map and chart file.
(3) Advises with procurement agency regarding the mapping needs of the Air Force
and prepares draft of mapping mission orders.
b. Air Route Guides.
(1) Maintains current file of Air Route
Guides.
(2) Maintains file of air navigation facilities and radio aids.
�CHAPTER XVIII
(
INTELLIGENCE FUNCTIONS OF HIGHER ECHELONS
(3) Maintains file of landing field data.
c. Drafting.
( 1) Performs drafting for section as whole.
(2) Revises maps and charts on basis of
new information and prepares corrections for
reproduction.
3. OPERATIONAL INTELLIGENCETARGET INFORMATION.
\
a. Maintains files of objective folders and
target charts received from Hq AAF and other
sources.
b. Conducts studies leading to revision of
existing objective folders and target charts.
c. Prepares new objective folders and target
charts in addition to those received from Hq
AAF and other sources.
d. Prepares folders and charts in anticipation
of movement to new areas.
e. Analyzes bomb damage reports and prepares up-to-date supplements to briefing notes
of Group and Squadron S-2's.
(
4. OPERATIONAL INTELLIGENCELIAISON.
a. Procures intelligence from other headquarters, Army, Navy, and Allied.
b. Procures military information from friendly
civilian establishments.
c. Disseminates Air Force intelligence to
friendly headquarters.
d. Conducts official military visitors through
headquarters or to subordinate units.
5. OPERATIONAL INTELLIGENCECURRENT.
a. Communications and Receiving Unit.
( 1) Supervises operation of direct telephones, A-2 teletypes, TWX, PBX, radio, news
ticker.
(2) Receives all messages pertammg to
combat intelligence from within and without
Air Force Headquarters.
b. Evaluation and Recording Unit.
(1) Enters combat items in journal.
(2) Prepares flash reports of urgent information to Chief of Staff, A-3, or other staff
officers concerned and to other interested headquarters.
(3) Prepares worksheet if used.
(4) Maintains combat message files.
c. Analysis Unit.
( 1) Maintains enemy air force order of
battle.
(2) Maintains information on locations and
facilities of enemy airdromes, air installations,
enemy decoys and dummies.
(3) Maintains current data on enemy . atr
tactics and recognition signals.
(4) Maintains information on location and
nature of enemy air defenses, AAA, SL, BB,
Radar.
(5) Maintains information on friendly and
enemy ground and naval situations.
(6) Posts situation maps.
d. Dissemination Unit.
( 1) In coordination with analysis unit prepares suitable periodic reports, intelligence summaries and special reports and disseminates
same by suitable means: telephone, teletype,
radio, or messenger.
·
(2) Prepares overlays of situation map for
dissemination when deemed desirable.
(3) Maintains distribution lists.
e. Air War Room Unit.
(1) Operates air war room.
(2) Posts general and special situation
maps.
(3) Posts statistical data, bulletins, charts.
(4) Receives weather forecasts and current
weather data.
(5) Gives war news presentation on all
fronts.
(6) Presents intelligence estimate of the situation.
6. PHOTO INTELLIGENCE.
a. Chief of Subsection.
( 1) Establishes priority of photographic
studies in accordance with directives of A-2.
(2) Advises A-2 on photo reconnaissance
missions desired.
(3) Coordinates with target information
unit in construction and revision of target
charts and on bomb damage assessment.
b. Receiving Unit.
( 1) Receives and records all photo intelligence material of A-2.
(2) Maintains chart and print library.
c. Analysis Unit.
( 1) Detailed interpretation performed by
specialists in the following fields: aircraft, antiaircraft defenses, airdromes, naval, shipping,
military, industry, radio and radar installations,
camouflage, decoys and dummies, transportation and damage assessment.
d. Reporting Unit.
( 1) Reviews and edits all reports.
(2) Prepares and distributes final reports.
89
�CHAPTER XVIII
INTELLIGENCE FUNCTIONS OF HIGHER ECHELONS
7. TECHNICAL AIR INTELLIGENCE.
a. Formulates Air Force enemy materiel inspection policy.
b. Dispatches technical air intelligence officers
to the site of captured enemy aircraft, air
weapons or air equipment to make a spot inspection (coordination with P / W Subsection
if enemy personnel captured).
c. Transmits materiel inspection reports on
Pro Forma forms "C'' and "D" to War Department.
d. Arranges for disposal of materiel or movement to zone of interior for tests (coordination
with A-4).
e. Maintains up-to-date and complete information on enemy aircraft, design, specification and performance characteristics.
8. COUNTERINTELLIGENCE.
a. Security.
( 1) Teaches security in speech and correspondence through lectures, circulars, posters,
etc.
(2) Recommends measures to protect personnel, installations and equipment against
sabotage.
(3) Advises the Commanding General with
respect to security in headquarters and in subordinate units.
(4) Ma:intains liaison with civilian security
agencies.
(5) Supervises care and disposition of classified documents and equipment.
(6) Performs necessary investigations.
(7) Suggests plans for deceiving the enemy
with decoys and dummies.
(8) Makes recommendations concerning
concealment and secrecy discipline.
(g) Performs such additional security duties
as may be imposed by AR and the Air Force
commander.
. b. Censorship.
( 1) Checks and stamps headquarters personal mail.
(2) Maintains records and initiates a~tion
on censorship violations.
c. Counter Propaganda.
(1) Prepares and disseminates counter propaganda as directed by GHQ.
(2) Studies enemy propaganda technique
and media, and notes effects among civilian and
military personnel.
90
g. PRISONER OF WAR INTERROGATION.
a. Formulates Air Force policy on air prisoner
interrogation.
b. Operates P / W interrogation teams. (Coordination with Technical Air Intelligence.)
c. Establishes P / W interrogation centers.
d. Prepares and transmits interrogation reports.
e. Translates captured enemy documents
(Coordination with Signal Intelligence on coded
documents.)
10. TRAINING.
a. Prepares training directives.
b. Inspects training of units.
c. Supervises training status reports.
d. Recommends measures to correct faulty
training in lower uni ts.
e. Recommends allocation of intelligence officers and enlisted men on basis of competence.
(Coordination with Administration Subsection.)
f. Coordinates with A-3 on intelligence training of flying personnel.
g. Procures and distributes models, charts,
silhouettes and other training aids.
h. Prepares recognition training programs.
PUBLIC RELATIONS.
a. Maintains contact with accredited correspondents, observers and photographers, (both
still and motion pictures).
b. Prepares and issues operational communiques through authorized channels.
c. Arranges for visits of representatives of
press and public personages.
d. Coordinates news stories and submits
scripts and photographs to censors.
11.
12. UNIT HISTORY.
a. Prepares history of Air Force.
Regulation 20-8.)
(See AAF
II: BOMBER COMMAND
1.
2.
Administrative Branch
a. Administrative Unit
b. Counterintelligence Unit
c. Public Relations Unit
Intelligence Branch
a. Operational Intelligence Unit
b. Analysis Unit
c. Geographic Unit
d. War Room Unit
e. Duty Room Unit
f. Training and Equipment Unit
-g. Photo Intelligence Unit
(
�CHAPTER XVIII
1.
(
INTELLIGENCE . FUNCTIONS OF HIGHER ECHELONS
ADMINISTRATIVE BRANCH.
a. Administrative Unit.
(1) Supervises personnel-control and records.
(2) Maintains liaison with Wing and
Group S-2's.
(3) Supervises assignments . of intelligence
officers.
(4) Records changes in organization and
location . of BOMCOM Units.
(5) Supervises correspondence and filing.
(6) Supervises special intelligence funds.
(7) Coordinates insignia regulatio11s.
(8) Distributes publications to Wings,
Groups and Squadrons.
(g) Arranges presentations of citations, decorations and other awards.
b. Counterintelligence Unit.
( 1) Safeguards information, documents,
property and materiel throughout the Command.
(2) Supervises security in Command.
(3) Guards and distributes classified docu ments in HQ BOMCOM-receipts, records.
Coordinates requests for classified documents
from lower echelons.
(4) Recommends investigations, through
A-2 Air Force, of
(a) Undesirable security conditions.
(b) Sabotage.
( c) Subversive activities.
(5) Maintains liaison with theater censor.
(6) Assists S-2's with counterintelligence
organization.
(7) Maintains inventory of secret articles
and materiel.
(8) Assures that personnel of Command is
conversant with AR 380-5.
c. Public Relations Unit.
(1) Executes basic theater and Air Force
policies on public relations.
(2) Prepares consolidated news report of
Wing operations. After review for accuracy by
Commanding General or A-2, forwards to Air
Force.
(3) Coordinates general news articles submitted by Wing PRO's and forwards to Air
Force.
(4) Supervises press visits and activities
within Command.
(5) Passes all material for release to the
press.
(6) Trains public relations personnel.
(7) Issues policy outlines to subordinate
units.
(8) Distributes news bulletins and other
informational material to Wings.
(g) Prepares special articles and speeches,
including contributions to Air Force publications.
(10) Organizes collection of historical data.
( 11) Assists in propaganda effort as directed
by Air Force HQ.
(12) Supervises expenditure of special funds
allocated for public relations expenses.
( 13) Coordinates work of Signal Corps and
other photographic agencies in press and still
photography.
~- INTELLIGENCE BRANCH.
a. Operational Intelligence Unit.
(1) Main Functions:
(a) Studies targets.
(b) Prepares estimates of enemy air reactions.
( c) Prepares special bri~fing notes.
( d) Assesses raid damage.
(2) Marine Sub-Unit.
(a) Enemy ports.
(b) Enemy shipping-naval and commercial-invasion craft.
(c) Enemy marine recognition signals.
( d) Enemy aids to marine navigationbcacons, lights, etc.
(e) PRU reports, etc., for marine data.
(f) Enemy attacks on Allied shipping and
own shipping losses.
(3) Enemy Defenses Sub-Unit.
(a) Disposition of enemy fighters.
(b) Details and activity of enemy airdromes.
( c) Flak and searchlights-tactical dispersion.
( d) Balloons.
( e) Decoys, dummies, camouflage, smoke
screens.
(t) RDF, IFF, beacons, flares, etc.
(g) Enemy tactics.
(4) Enemy Air Forces Sub-Unit.
(a) Order of Battle.
(b) Performance, equipment and armament.
( c) Production.
( d) Training.
(e) Crashed enemy aircraft.
(t) Destroyed enemy aircraft.
91
�CHAPTER XVIII
INTELLIGENCE FUNCTIONS OF HIGHER ECHELONS
(g) Comparison of sorties (own and
enemy).
(5) Target Folder Sub-Unit.
(a) Maintains data on targets.
(b) Secures data for targets.
b. Analysis Unit.
. ( 1) Studies all source material for target
data.
(2) Evaluates and interprets reports from
lower echelons.
(3) Special studies and projects for C. G.
and ·staff.
(4) Studies PRU reports.
(5) Collates and indexes data pertaining to
general intelligence such as morale, compulsory
labor, etc. Plots trends.
(6) Analyzes P/ W reports.
c. Geographic Unit.
(1) Secures maps for Command and lower
units.
(2) Maintains map and chart information
with index reference.
(3) Drafting and lettering special maps and
charts.
d. War Room Unit.
(1) Prepares and maintains visual presentation of data, developed by various units and
sub-units, as follows:
(a) Situation Maps.
1. Local theater m detail, friendly
and enemy.
11. Other theaters broadly.
(b j Order of Battle.
1. German Air Force.
11. Japanese Air Force.
iii. German Army.
1v. Japanese Army.
v. Major Enemy Naval Units.
( c) Operation Intelligence. For the local
theater1. Large map.
ii. Air map.
111. Enemy airdromes map.
1v. Map-Flak and S/ L defenses.
v. Map-Disposition of En em y
Aircraft.
vi. Map-Barrage Balloons.
vii. Map-Enemy Radar Installations.
viii. Graph-Enemy and Allied Scale of
Air Effort.
(d) Shipping.
i. Chart-all losses in pertinent sea
areas.
92
ii. Graphs-tonnage losses.
( e) Miscellaneous.
i. Map-Allied Fighter Groups and
Sectors.
11. Map-Allied Bomber Groups.
m. Map-All Allied airdromes.
1v. Silhouettes-Enemy Naval Units .
v. Pictures-Enemy Naval Units.
vi. Map-U. S. airfields and installations in the theater.
vii. Aerial photographs.
viii. Organizational charts.
e. Duty Room Unit.
( 1) Keeps intelligence journal and action
book.
(2) Prepares and disseminates periodic and:
special intelligence reports and summaries.
(3) Distributes all intelligence mail.
(4) Handles all telephone traffic-incoming.
and outgoing.
(5) Maintains liaison with Wings and
Groups on all current operations.
(6) Maintains liaison with photo units for
details of photo sorties; disseminates data.
(7) Receives visitors to Intelligence Room.
(8) Receives Enemy Broadcast Summary
and routes it to PRO.
f. Training and Equipment Unit.
( 1) Primary.
(a) Receives, houses and supervises newly
arrived intelligence officers.
(b) Prepares and holds indoctrination
courses.
( c) Arranges station visits.
·( d) Recommends specific assignments of
intelligence officers.
(e) Arranges indoctrination for intelligence specialists.
(2) Advanced.
(a) Supervises organization and continuous training program for officers and men m
lower echelons.
(b) Provides for intelligence training of
flying personnel in lower echelons. Supervises
training in recognition and identification of aircraft, naval and merchant vessels, armored forces,
both friendly and enemy.
(c) Originates, produces and distributes
training aids and equipment.
( d) Provides for and executes intelligence training program in OTU's for both intelligence and flying personnel.
�CHAPTER XVIII
(
\
INTELLIGENCE FUNCTIONS OF HIGHER ECHELONS:
(e) 0 bserves efficiency of S-2 sections and
personnel in lower units.
g. Photo Intelligence Unit.
(1) Compiles consolidated bomb impact
plots and strike attack reports.
(2) Carries on photographic research relative to bombing problems.
(3) May be responsible for damage assessment.
Ill: BOMBER WING
Executive.
Administration.
Combat Intelligence.
Photo Interpretation.
Counterintelligence.
6. Public Relations.
7. Training.
8. Liaison.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
1.
EXECUTIVE.
a. Group S-2 organization.
b. Liaison with groups.
c. Interpretation of group combat and bombing reports.
d. Weekly Report-enemy situation and capabilities.
e. Personnel-A-2 and S-2.
c. Personnel Records-A-2 and S-2.
d. Statistics.
3. COMBAT INTELLIGENCE.
a. Combat intelligence missions.
b. Upkeep of situation room.
c. Reports to bomber command.
d. -weekly reports-all fronts.
4. PHOTO L\' TERPRETATION .
a. Bomb impact plotting and analysis from
mission photos.
b. Group liaison.
5. COUNTERINTELLIGENCE.
a. Wing security.
b. Group security.
c. Liaison and training.
G. PUBLIC RELATIONS.
a. Wing PRO supervision.
b. Group PRO supervision.
c. Group PRO training.
d. Wing history.
7. TRAINING.
a. Wing intelligence school.
b. Group intelligence training.
8. LIAISON.
a. Allied liaison.
2. ADMINISTRATION.
a. Files and correspondence.
b. Equipinent-A-2 and S-2.
b. Naval liaison.
c. Ground force liaison.
d. Flak liaison.
93
�I
Chapter XIX
GERMAN AIR FORCE
(S-2 MUST KNOW THE ENEMY)
•
Paragraph
Historical Development of the German Air Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I
Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2
Nomenclature and Designation . . .. : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
GAF Aircraft Markings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4
German Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5
Uniforms, Ranks and Decorations ... . . . .. . . .... . .... .. . . ... . ....
6
GAF Personalities ... .. ... . ....... ...... .. . .. .. ...... . . .. ... .
7
1. HISTORICAL
DEVELOPMENT
THE GERMAN AIR FORCE.
OF
a. Versailles Treaty.
(1) The treaty required Germany to disband her Air Force, and forbade her to possess
military aircraft, or to subsidize sports flying.
Accordingly she surrendered 15,714 aircraft
and 27,757 engines to the Allies. Even as she did
so, she was planning to circumvent the treaty.
Several methods were used:
(a) "Civil aviation" factories were built,
airdromes constructed and aircraft which later
could be used as military prototypes were developed. "Recreational" flying schools were inaugurated and "individuals" subsidized sports
flying clubs so successfully that by 1932 the
major German club had 60,000 members.
(b) Despite the treaty, which forbade
Germany to send naval, military or air missions
abroad, and forbade service in foreign military
forces, German officers were attached in large
numbers to air forces in other countries: in
Russia, a German air mission played an important part in training the Soviet Air Force. Likewise, Germans flew and w.orked as ground crews
for civilian air lines in foreign countries, especially South America; these airline.s later provided a good number of air and ground per-sonnel to the German Air Force.
( c) Forbidden to build or import military aircraft, Germany subsidized aircraft and
engine factories in Italy, Switzerland, Denmark,
Sweden, Russia and Turkey. She thus kept in-
94
Page
94
96
97
99
99
99
99
formed of the latest manufacturing processes,
and also trained large numbers of German technical personnel.
(d) After Hitler became Chancellor in
1933, one of his first acts was to appoint Hermann Goring Director of Civil · Aviation.
Goring immediately combined all private flying
clubs and expanded all aviation schools. Students and officers were put into uniform. Old
airfields were made larger and new ones built.
( e) In May 1933, the German Air Ministry
was created and Goring named Air Minister.
Two years later, in March 1935, the new German Air Force was officially announced. The
existence of 1,000 military aircraft and 20,000
trained officers and men was admitted. Shortly
afterward, all antiaircraft artillery and the necessary signal organizations were taken from the
Army into the Air Force.
··
(f) At the Nazi Party Rally in September
1937, 250 military aircraft of new design flew
in formation. In 1938, 400 German aircraft
played their part in the occupation of Austria,
particularly the 160 transports which carried
2,000 fully equipped German soldiers to Vienna.
Shortly afterward, the Austrian Air Force disappeared into the GAF and the expansion of
Austrian aircraft industries was begun.
(g) At the outbreak of war, September
1939, Germany faced Europe with 4,300 first-line
aircraft, including 1,750 long-range bombers and
1,200 fighters. This strength was backed by an
industry employing more than 200,000 workers
�CHAPTER XIX
(
and capable of turning out each month 1,100
aircraft.
b. Polish Campaign (September, 1939).
(1) In its first campaign, the GAF employed 1,360 aircraft. The Poles were able to
muster 490, many of them obsolescent by German standards. The main preliminary objective
of the GAF was the elimination of the Polish
Air Force, which was accomplished in three days.
The Germans lost 150-200 first-line aircraft.
(2) After destroying the Polish Air Force,
the GAF extensively disorganized Polish communications, destroyed factories and indiscriminately attacked non-military objectives. The
success of these attacks on civilian targets en<:ouraged German commanders to repeat them
in later campaigns-Rotterdam, London, Belgrade and Moscow.
c. Norwegian Campaign (April-May, 1940).
( 1) In the Norwegian Campaign the GAF
used 800 operational aircraft, of which 400 were
long-range bombers, 250-300 transports. The
Germans quickly gained and held complete mastery of the air.
d. Campaigns in Lowlands and France (MayJ une, 1940).
(1) At the beginning of the campaign
against Holland and Belgium, May 10, 1940,
all available operational units of the German
Air Force were put into action on the Western
Front, with the exception of three long-range
bomber units in Norway. Again air mastery was
,quickly gained and held.
e. Battle of Britain (July-December, 1940).
(1) In July 1940, the German Air Force
began cautious, exploratory air attacks against
Britain. By August, Germany was trying with
approximately 3,500 aircraft to wear down the
British fighter force, daily increasing the power
of the onslaught and giving the numericallyinferior Royal Air Force no time to rest its personnel or repair its aircraft.
(2) In the early days of the Battle of Britain Ju-87's with fighter escort were employed.
Their casualty rate was so high that within two
weeks they were withdrawn. In their place
long-range bombers with heavy fighter escort
were sent over in daylight attacks on fighter airfields, communications and London docks.
Again losses were so heavy that the plan of
attack had to be changed, and while Goring had
never believed in night attacks, he now sent his
bombers over in darkness. Throughout Sep-
GERMAN AIR FORCE
tember and into October the Germans each
night flew in force over England. By the middle
of October these night attacks ended: they were
too costly. The German Air Force had set out
to gain complete air superiority over Britain
so that Hitler's forces, under a friendly umbrella, could invade the island. The failure of
the plan cost the GAF 2,500 aircraft, 7,500
airmen.
(3) Since the repulse of their night bombing attacks, the Germans have not attempted
another large scale air offensive against Britain.
Spasmodic reprisals and publicity raids have
been undertaken but, forced to fight in Russia,
North Africa and Italy, forced to defend Germany itself, as well as the satellite countries, the
GAF has been unable to regain the offensive.
f. Battle of the Atlantic (1942-1944)
( 1) Having £ailed to reduce Britain by direct air attack, Germany attempted another
method. She intensified air operations against
British ports in an effort to damage ships, delay
unloading and destroy cargoes. At the same
time the famous Condor units equipped with
FW-20o's flew innumerable long-range antishipping patrols in an effort to locate and report
Allied vessels to U-boats. Despite this increased
German antishipping activity, British fighter
patrols were able to prevent an increase iri shipping losses.
g. Mediterranean Campaigns (January 19411944)·
(1) Malta, 1940-1942 . .
(a) After sending approximately 330 aircraft into Italy and Sicily, the GAF began intensive attacks on Malta, seeking to neutralize that
island as a naval and air base. Although the
Royal Navy was eventually forced to withdraw,
the Royal Air Force was never knocked out, nor
did the island surrender.
(2) Balkan Campaign, April-May, 1941.
(a) For this campaign goo aircraft were
assembled to give close support to the army and
destroy' air fields and communications. Toward
the end of April the emphasis of the air attack
was shifted to the harbors and shipping in
Greece. Successful against these targets, the GAF
prepared for an airborne attack on Crete.
(3) Crete, May, 1941.
(a) Following 48 hours of intense air attack on airfields and ground defenses, the Germans on May 20 landed parachutists and gliderborne troops. They took the island, but their
95
�CHAPTER XIX
losses were severe, and important units were returned to central and eastern Germany for regrouping.
(4) North Africa, July 1941-January 1944.
(a) The GAF was not in force in this
theater and, caught by surprise, was unprepared
for the British offensive of November 18, 1941.
By the middle of December the Germans had
been compelled to withdraw to Tripolitania,
where they faced a serious shortage of supplies.
In January 1942, _however, Rommel opened a
sudden and fierce counter offensive which
drove the British back toward Egypt. With success apparently in sight, Rommel's attack bogged
down and he began the retreat which ended in
the surrender of all German forces in North
Africa.
(b) Throughout the latter part of this
campaign, the bulk of German long-range bombers in the Mediterranean was based on Sicily,
whence attacks were made on convoys and ports
by torpedo-carrying aircraft, mainly Ju-88's and
He-11 i's, which had been moved down from
Russia and Norway.
(5) Eastern Mediterranean, 1943-1944.
(a) During 1943, pressure on other fronts
kept activities of the GAF in the Eastern Mediterra1:-ean to a minimum. Small attacks by both
torpedo and glider bombers were made against
Allied shipping from bases in Greece and Northern Italy and in the autumn of 1943 Stukas
and high altitude, long-range bombers played
their part in the German recapture of the Dodecanese Islands of Leros and Cos; otherwise, the
GAF in this area accomplished little.
h. Russian Campaign (June 1941-January,
1944)(1) June-September, 1941.
(a) German preparations for the attack
on Russia were made long prior to 1941. The
first indication of the coming attack was the
movement of training organizations from airfields in East Prussia and Poland, and their replacement by GAF ground organizations charged
with the final preparation of the airfields for the
arrival of operational units.
(b) Approximately, 2,500 aircraft were
used by the Germans in the initial blows against
Russia. Originally successful, the GAF was so
seriously affected by adverse weather conditions
in the winter of 1941 that air superiority passed
from them to the Soviet Air Force. Since that
time, particularly since the fall of Stalingrad in
96
GERMAN AIR FORCE
1942, the Germans have never regained the air
initiative in Russia.
i. Summary.
(1) The German air offensive against Brit-ain was designed to ( 1) paralyze essential ind us try, (2) undermine morale, (3) enforce a
blockade. The failure of these three designs, the
failure of Germany to gain command of the daylight air over Britain, made impossible the in_
vasion of England.
(2) Since the time the three air frontsRussia, the Mediterranean, Western Europe-became fully operational, the Germans have been
unable to meet their simultaneous commitments.
Since 1942, they have been on the defensive. At
present, the GAF strategically is concerned
chiefly with the conservation of German aircraft
and crews.
2. ORGANIZATION.
a. General.
(1) The German Air Force (Luftwaffe) is
one of three branches of the German Armed
Forces (Wehrmacht) and is organized and administered independently of the Army and the
Navy.
(2) The Luftwaffe itself is divided into
three parts: air, air signal, and antiaircraft artillery. Included in the Luftwaffe are parachute
and airborne troops, air engineers, air medical
corps, air police, and certain special air divisions
used as regular fighting troops.
(3) Organized on a territorial rather than
a functional basis and with operational and
administrative commands separated, the GAF
achieved a mobility and flexibility which was
largely responsible for its initial success. (Organization of the GAF is shown on Chart B,
page 98.)
b. German High Command.
( 1) The Germans have a single branch of
the government known as the High Command
of the Armed Forces (OKW-Oberkommando der
Wehrmacht), with Hitler as Commander in
Chief and Generalfeldmarschall Keitel as Chief
of Staff of the High Command and Commanderin-Chief of the German Army.
(2) In the background of all German military activities is, of course, the German General
Staff Corps, the famous military "Junkers."
(3) Each branch of the German Armed
Forces has its own High Command: that of the
Air Force is the Oberkommando der Luftwaffe
(OKL). Commander-in-Chief of the GAF and
�GERMAN A IR FORCE
CHAPTER XIX
(
German Minister for Air is Reichsmarschall
Goring, with Generalfeldmarschall Milch as his
Deputy Commander-in-Chief and Inspector General of the GAF.
(4) The Air Force General Staff (General.stab der Luftwaffe) is divided into six Sections:
(1) Operational, (2) Organizational, (3) Training, (4) Supply and Administrative, (5) Intelligence, and (6) Medical).
c. Luftfiotte.
( 1) The Luftwaffe is divided into six tactical and territorial air commands known as
Luftflotten, each of which is assigned to a particular command area and controls all air operations and activities in that area. Units subordinate to the Luftflotte are either operational
(Fliegerkorps, Geschwader, Gruppen and Staffeln) or administrative (Luftga:ue, Airfield Regional Comma11ds and Operational Airfield
Commands).
(2) Operational Units.
(a) Fliegerkorps: Each Fliegerkorps is a
composite, mobile command within its own geographical area.
(b) Geschwader: The Geschwader is the
.largest homogeneous unit in the GAF, and consists of either long-range bombers, dive bombers, ground attack aircraft, or single and twinengine fighters. All planes within a Geschwader
are of the same type, although the make and
model may differ among the Gruppen. Ordinarily a Geschwader will contain three Gruppen,
but occasionally will contain a fourth and sometimes a fifth.
( c) Lehrgeschwader:
The Lehrgeschwader is a special unit whose primary function
is the combat testing of the latest type of aircraft, defenses and signals.
( d) Gruppe: The Gruppe is the basic
combat unit for both administrative and operational purposes. It is mobile and may operate
separately in any command area.
( e) Staffel.· The Staffel is the smallest
-operational unit. It consists of nine aircraft
(I.E.-Initial Equipment) plus three additional
planes held in reserve (I.R.-Immediate Re·serve). For tactical purposes it may be sub-divided into Schwarme of five planes, into Ketten of three planes, or into Rotten of two planes.
(f) Semi-autonomous Units: In addition
to the units named above, there are others or-ganized no higher than Gruppen. These include
reconnaissance, coastal, army cooperation and
naval cooperation aircraft.
(g) Special Commands: The Jagdfiihrer
(or Jafii) are separate fighter commands which
direct fighter operations in any particular
theater. Highly specialized operations, such as
anti-shipping attacks, have often been put under
the control of special commanders known as
Fliegerfiihrer.
(3) Administrative Units.
(a) Luftgau: The Luftgaue are the administrative and supply organizations of the
Luftwaffe. They are stationary, and their authority is limited to well-defined geographical
areas. Each Luftgau is responsible for (a) administration, supply and maintenance of all flying units, (b) active and passive defense against
air attack, (c) operations of signals units, (d)
training other than that of auxiliary units, and
(e) recruiting, mobilizing, and training of reserve personnel.
3. NOMENCLATURE AND
DESIGNATION
a. Echelons in the Luftwaffe are designated
alternately by Arabic and Roman numerals:
Luftfl.otten-Arabic; Fliegerkorps and LuftgaueRoman; Geschwader and Airfield Regional Commands-Arabic; Gruppen-Roman; StaffelnArabic.
( 1) The Staffeln within a Geschwader are
numbered consecutively from 1 to g (or 12 in
case of four Gruppen). The three Staffeln in the
first Gruppe are always numbered 1, 2 and 3
respectively: those in the second Gruppe 4, 5
and 6, etc.
b. A Geschwader is designated by the abbreviation for the type of unit:
Bomber
Dive bomber
Fighter
Fighter-Bomber
2 Eng. Fighter
Night Fighter
Anti-Tank
Experimental Combat
Unit
Kampfgeschwader
Sturzkampfgeschwader
.J agdgeschwader
Schnell kampfgeschwader
Zers torergesch wader
N achtjagdgeschwader
Schlachtgesch wader
Lehrgesch;vader
KG
StKG
JG
SKG
ZG
NJG
SchG
Lehr
Thus Il/ KG.26 is the 2nd Gruppe of Kampfgeschwader (Bomber Geschwader) No. 26.
5/ KG.26 is the 5th Staffel of the 2nd Gruppe of
Kampfgeschwader No. 26.
c. Certain special units carry special designations. These include Army Cooperation and
Reconnaissance outfits.
Tactical Reconnaissance-Heeresluftgruppe (H) Gr
Long- Range-Fernaufkliirungsgruppe (F) Gr
Coastal Groups-Ki.istenfliegergruppe KFGr
Long Range Bomber-Kampfgruppe KGr
Thus 3 (H) 22 is the 3rd Staffel of Tactical
Reconnaissance Gruppe No. 22.
97
�CHART B
•
TYPES OF (;[SCHWIU)ER
BOMBER
DIVE BOMBER
KAMPFGESCHWADER
KG
STURTZ l<AMPFGESCH WAOcR
St KG
JG
jAGDGESCHWAOER
FIGHTER
FIGHTER-BOM&ER SCHNELL I<. AM PF GESCH WA DER SKG
URSTORERGESCHWAOER
ZG
2 ENG. FIGHTER
NIGHT FIGHTER
ANTI-TANK
NACHTJAGDGESCHWADER
SCHLACHTG f SCH WA OER
NJG
lEHRCESCHWADER
LEHR
Sch.G
EXPERIMENTAL
COMBAT UNIT
AR.MV CO-OP & RECCO GROUPS
TACTICAL RECCO
HEERESLUFTGRUPPE
LONG RANGE
rEl?Nllllf'XJ.iiRIINGSGIWPPE
COASTAL GROUPS
LONG RANGE
BOMBER
(H)Gr
tF> Gr
KFGr
KIJESTENfLIE6ERCIWPPE
KAMPFGRUPPc
SPECIAL EM Pl OYME NT c TRANSPORT J
{ALSO .Jl"1PLY
GR)
ZU BESONOERER VERWENDUNG
AIRCRAFT
IE IR.
KGr
$TAFF£/.
9 3
STABS SCHWll!l.M 3-6 0
zbv
~Tll8S' l<fTTE
GRUPP€
3 0
30 9
GcSCilWIJPER
96 27
�CHAPTER XIX
(
4. GAF AIRCRAFT MARKINGS.
a. Bomber and Reconnaissance Aircraft.
(1) Four characters are painted on the
fuselage of each bomber or reconnaissance plane,
two in front of the black cross and two after.
The first two characters are a letter and a digit
and give (in code) the Geschwader. The two
characters after the cross are always letters, the
first indicating the particular plane in the Staffel
and the second indicating the Staffel to which
the aircraft belongs.
b. Transport Aircraft.
(1) Each transport is numbered with two
letters which indicate its Geschwader.
c. Fighter Aircraft.
( 1) Single engine fighter aircraft are identified by chevrons, bars, stripes, etc. Various
colors are used and certain pilots will on occasion have individual markings of their own.
5. GERMAN AIRCRAFT.
a. For detailed information on German Aircraft, see: (1) "German Aircraft and Armament," Informational Intelligence Summary No.
43-33, Office AC/ AS, Intelligence, (2) "Handbook on German Military Forces,'' Tm-E 30-145,
P· 269.
6. UNIFORMS, RANKS AND DECORATIONS.
a. Uniforms.
(1) The uniforms of all GAF personnel is
grey-blue, the shirt a mixed blue, the tie black;
the open· jacket is lounge-cut.
(2) The Air Force badge (an eagle in
flight holding a swastika) is worn by all ranks
on the right breast above the pocket. In addition, pilots, observers, wireless operators and
flight engineers wear an Air Force badge with
a surrounding wreath on the left breast below
the pocket.
(3) Various colors are worn to distinguish
the branches of the Air Force such as yellow for
flying, red for flak, brown for signals, etc.
(4) Shoulder-straps and badges worn on the
colored collar-patch indicate rank. (Comparative ranks and grades are listed ih appendix N.)
b. Decorations and Awards.
(1) The Germans are constantly inventing
new awards to meet the mounting claims of
GAF personnel. Each theater has its own requirements for particular awards which are
ordinarily based on number of missions and
victories. The following are listed in the order
of their importance:
GERMAN AIR FORCE
(a) Iron Cross Class 2.
( b) Iron C_ross Class 1.
( c) Knight's Insignia of the Iron Cross.
( d) Knight's Insignia of the Iron Cross
with Oak Leaves.
( e) Knight's Insignia of the Iron Cross
with Swords.
(f) Knight's Insignia of the Iron Cross
with Diamonds.
(2) The following are special awards:
(a) German Cross in Gold. A new award
intended to fill the gap between the Iron Cross
Class 1, and the Knight's Insignia of the Iron
Cross.
(b) War Flights Badges. Bronze, silver
or gold badges indicate number of flights.
(c) Russian Front Medal. This new
medal was created to compensate personnel who
spent the winter of 1941-42 in Russia.
(d) Hermann Goring Cup.
This is
Goring's personal award for exceptional achievements. Perhaps because it does not carry with
it any decoration which can be worn, it has
never been especially popular.
(e) War Cross of Merit. This is a high
award for meritorious conduct at home.
7. GAF PERSONALITIES.
a. Reichsmarschall Goring. Commander-inChief of the GAF, Air Minister, Prime Minister
of Prussia, President of the Reichstag, Economic
Controller and Minister of the Four-Year Plan,
Game Warden of the Reich, Speaker of the
Reichstag, etc., etc., etc. He is 50 years old
and comes o.f a good family, his father having
been Governor of German South-West Africa.
During the last war he became an ace fighter
pilot and took over the "Richthofen Circus"
upon the death of its famous leader. After the
Armistice he refused to give up his squadron to
the Allies and thereby became something of a
national hero.
b. Generalfeldmarschall Milch.
InspectorGeneral, Deputy Commander-in-Chief of the
GAF and Deputy Air Minister. He is a selfmade man with unlimited energy, ambition and
extreme ruthlessn.ess. With great efficiency he
wields the power which Goring delegates to him.
c. Generaloberst Jeschonnek. In World War
I he was Infantry Company Commander at the
age of 16. Later in this same war he became a
fighter pilot. At 40 he was Chief of the Air Staff
of the GAF, and many of its early successes can
be attributed to him. He died August 1943.
99
�CHAPTER XIX
d. General der Flieger Korten. This experi·enced staff officer has been an ardent Nazi since
the Muni ch Putsch and is now Chief of the Air
Staff. He is said to be modest, efficient, and well
educated.
e.
Generaloberst Keller. co Luftflotte 1, age
60. Keller was a distinguished flier during the
last war and at one time was in charge of a
·school for air 1ine pilots at Staaken. He is now
regarded' as one of the outstanding commanders
-of the GAF.
f. Generalfeldmarschall Kesselring. Formerly
,CO Luftflotte 2, and now in command of the
Mediterranean Area. At 58, he is one of the
few high-ranking officers in the GAF who had
no connection with the Air Service in the last
war. He is now regarded as one of the most
successful German Commanders, even though
.he is known to be on bad terms with Sperrle.
g. Generalfeldmarschall
Richthofen.
CO
Luftflotte 2, age 48, and a cousin of the late
World War ace. He distinguished himself during the Low Countries op~rations and played a
Jarge part in the Balkan air campaign; more recently he has been operating in Russia. With
his good name and appearance, brutal energy,
and great personal courage, he is the German
.ideal of an Air Force General.
h. Generalfeldmarschall Sperrle. He was in
the Air Service in World War I and commanded
.the Condor Legion in the Spanish War. He
inspires terror rather than respect from his sub•ordinates and is noted for his desire to surpass
.a.11 other commanders in givi~g promotions and
.decorations to his officers.
1 00
GERMAN AIR FORCE
z. Generalfeldmarschall Lohr. At one time in
command of Luftflotte 4, Lohr during the summer of 1942 was given command of the German
armed forces in the South-East, thus becoming
one of the few GAR generals in command of
ar:i:ny units.
j. General der Flieger Dessloch. Formerly in
command of the ·2nd Antiaircraft Artillery. Now
CO of Luftflotte 4 in South Russia.
k. Generaloberst Stumpf. CO Luftflotte 5,
age 54. He is an excellent organizer and is one
of the outstanding officers in the GAF.
l. Generaloberst Greim. CO Luftflotte 6. He
was a successful fighter pilot in the last war and
at 52 is still a first-class pilot with unusual flying
experience. In contrast to some of his colleagues,
he is modest, well mannered, and likeable.
m. General der Flieger Kammhuber. A quiet,
efficient Bavarian, age 47, Kammhuber was shot
down and captured in the attack on France but
was released after the Armistice. He was in
charge of the night-fighter division which has
now expanded to Fliegerkorps XII.
n. Oberst Pelz. This officer is only 29 but has
received virtually all the highest air awards.
Long famous as a test pilot of all new types of
German aircraft, he began the war as a Stuka
pilot. Then, because of his extraordinary abilities, he was put in charge of air operations
against England.
o. Major G91lob. He is a Viennese, age 31,
who before being taken off operations was a top
fighter pilot with 150 claimed victories, having
operated with various Geschwader, largely in
Southern Russia. It is rumored, however, that
he is entirely unsuited for a staff post.
(
(,
�Chapter XX
(
JAPANESE AIR FORCES
(S-2 MUST KNOW THE ENEMY)
•
Paragraph
I·
Historical Development . . . . . . . . . . .
. .......... . ...... . .
2
Operations of Japanese Air Forces .... . .......... . ....... . .... .
3
Organization .. .... .... .... . ... . ............... . .... • .. • . • • • •
4
Identification of Aircraft .. ........... . ......... .
5
Japanese Aircraft
Ranks and Insignia
6
1.
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT.
a. Japan has no independent air force. The
Army Air Service is part of the Army, and is
entirely independent of the Naval Air Service,
which is part of the Navy. The two services
seldom use the same type of aircraft, and rarely,
if ever, operate in the same task force.
b. Japanese Army Air Service.
( 1) The Army Air Service began prior to
World War I when army officers went to France
to study the possibilities of aerial warfare. In
1921 a British civil mission, including designers,
engineers, and flight instructors, arrived in
Japan to teach aviation to the Japanese. Six
years later, in 1927, the Army Aviation Department was established under the Minister of War.
(2) In 1942, administration of army aviation was reorganized: its Commanding General was made directly responsible to the Emperor, and equal in rank to the Minister of War
and Chief of the General Staff.
c. Naval Air Service.
(1) Japanese Naval Aviation dates from
1912 when naval officers, trained in the United
States and France, returned to Japan. They
established training schools and made extensive
use of the British civil mission of 192 1.
(2) In October, 1942, the head of the Naval
Aviation Headquarters was made directly responsible to the Emperor and was given equal
authority with the Navy Minister and Chief of
the Naval General Staff.
Page
IOI
IOI
102
102
103
103
OPERATIONS OF JAPANESE AIR
FORCES.
a. Offensive.
( 1) From the attack on Pearl Harbor until
the middle of 1942 the Japanese Air Forces were
repeatedly successful. Operating in conjunction
and in close cooperation with task forces, they
were victorious in the Philippines, Malaya, Borneo, Sumatra, Java, New Guinea, New Britain
and the Solomon Islands. The pattern of all
operations was uniform:
(a) Long-range reconnaissance and heavy
bombardment disrupted enemy communications
and defenses.
( b) Enemy aircraft were destroyed in
combat and on the ground.
( c) Ground defenses and communications were attacked by large formations of bombers.
( d) In protection of convoys and aircraft
carriers, Japanese bombers and fighter-bombers
destroyed enemy air bases within operational
range.
( e) Coincident with actual landing operations, air attacks were made on all remaining ground defenses.
(f) Airfields were seized and fighters
moved in immediately.
( g) Airfields were rapidly repaired and
extended to accommodate bombers.
b. Defensive.
(1) Since the Battle of Midway, June 1942,
in which the Japanese suffered heavy casualties,
2.
101
�CHAPTER XX
they have not been able to regain the initiative
and have been continuously on the defensive.
3. ORGANIZATION.
a. General.
( 1) Owing to the excellence of Japanese
counterintelligence during the years in which
they were building their air strength, and owing
to the difficulty of the Japanese language, Allied
information about the organization of the Japanese Air Services is scanty and possibly inaccurate. (Charts C and D give the latest information available about the organization of
both the Army and Naval Air Services.)
b. The Army Air Service.
·(1) Army Aviation Headquarters controls
and administers all Army air operations and
training.
(2) Army ~ir force units, which are staffs
rather than commands, are organized into four
Air Armies (Kokugun), each permanently located and each exercising strategic control within its geographical area.
(3) The largest technical and administrative organization is the Flying Division (Hikoshidan), of which there are eight. These units
are assigned geographical areas and exercise operational and administrative control over all
flying and ground organiz~tions in the area.
They are of no fixed size or composition and
subordinate units may be freely shifted from
one Hikoshidan to another. Each Hikoshidan
is commanded by a Lt. General or a Major
General.
(4) The Flying Brigade (Hikodan) has
tactical responsibilities only. It is highly mobile
and is of ten shifted from one division to another.
(5) Within the Flying Brigades are the
Flying Regiments (Hikosentai), the largest units
normally composed of only one type of aircraft.
These purely tactical units are commanded by
a Lt. Col. or Major.
(6) Each Flying Regiment is composed of
three squadrons (Chutai), commanded by a captain. When in flight, the three squadrons are
termed a Daitai and the formation compares
to an AAF Combat Wing.
(7) Each squadron is divided into three
flights (Shotai), of three aircraft each. The
Shotai, like the AAF Flight, exists as a unit only
in air formation.
·
(8) Primary and intermediate training in
the Army Air Services is controlled by an Air
102
JAPANESE AIR FORCES
Training Division (Kyoiku Hikoshidan), which
is made of Air Training Brigades, (Kyoiku
Hikodan) and Air Training Regiments,
(Kyoiku Hikosentai).
(9) For reconnaissance, army cooperation,
anti-submarine patrols and meteorological
flights, there are Independent Flying Divisions
(Dokuritsu Hikoshidan), Independent Flying
Regiments (Dokuritsu Hikosentai), and Independent Flying Squadrons (Dokuritsu Hikochutai).
c. The Naval Air Service.
( 1) Except for certain aircraft carried by
surface vessels, all Naval aircraft are parts of
the Third, Eleventh, Twelfth and Thirteenth
Air Fleets. All shipborne aircraft are in the
Third, land-based aircraft are in the Eleventh,
Twelfth and Thirteen th. Each of these fleets
is commanded by a Vice-Admiral.
(2) The Third Air Fleet is divided into
Air Flotillas (Kokusentai), each commanded
by a Rear Admiral and each composed of 2-3
carriers with an aircraft complement of 100-222
aircraft. The Flotillas are composed of Air
Groups (Kokutai), each comprising the air complement of one carrier.
(3) The Eleventh, Twelfth and Thirteenth
Air Fleets are divided administratively into Air
Flotillas (Kokusentai) and tactically into Air
Attack Forces (Kushubutai) of land-based naval
aircraft.
(4) Naval Air Training. The Combined
Naval Air Corps (Kaigun Rengo Koku Sotai),
located in Japan, has the responsibility for
·
training.
4. IDENTIFICATION OF AIRCRAFT.
a. Owing to difficulty with Japanese names
the Allies have renamed Japanese aircraft, designating them by a code name, a descriptive
abbreviation and a type number which indicates the year in which the aircraft was adopted:
Type 97 (T.97) refers to the Japanese year
2597 or our year 1937. Descriptive abbreviations are listed immediately below. A second
list includes the code names of Japanese aircraft: male names for fighters and reconnaissance types, female names for bombers.
Medium bomber
Light bomber
Dive bomber
Torpedo bomber
Reconnaissance
Light bomber-reconnaissance
M/ B
L/B
D/B
T/ B
R
L/B-R
�CHAPTER XX
(
JAPANESE AIR FORCES
Fighter
Floatplane
Flying boat
Transport
Unidentified
F
F/P
F/B
Tpt.
U/ I
(The prefixes SE, 2E and 4E identify singleengined, twin-engined and four-engined aircraft.)
ARMY
"Oscar 2"
"Nick"
"Tony"
"Tojo"
"Sally 2"
"Ida"
"Sonia"
"Lily I & 2"
"Dinah"
"Helen"
T.1 (Mk. 2)
T.2
T.3
T.2
T.97 (Mk. 2)
T.98
T.gg
T.gg (Mks. 1
& 2)
T.o
T.o
SEF
2EF
SEF
SEF
2E M/B
SE L/B-R
SE L/B-R
2E L/B
2E R
2E M/B
NAVY
"Zeke"
"Hamp"
"Nell 3 &
"Kate 3''
"Babs 3''
"Val 2"
"Betty"
"Pete"
T.o (Mk.1)
T.o (Mk.2)
T.96 (Mks. 3
& 4)
T.97 (Mk.3)
T.98 (Mk.3)
T.gg (Mk.2)
T.1
T.o
"Jake"
T.o
"Glen"
T.o
"Rufe"
T.2
4''
"Mavis"
''Cherry''
"Emily"
T.97
T.gg
T.2
4E F/B
2E F/B
4E F/B
TRANSPORTS (Army and/or Navy)
"Thora"
"Topsy"
"Thelma"
"Tess"
T.97
T.o
T.o
T.o
2E
2E
2E
2E
Tpt.
Tpt.
Tpt.
Tpt.
b. There are important differences between
markings of Japanese Army and Navy .aircraft~
The Army marks its planes on the under side
of both wings with a red circle. The Navy not
only marks the under sides of the wings but
also both sides of the fuselage just aft of the
cockpit.
5. JAPANESE AIRCRAFT.
For detailed information on Japanese aircraft, see: "Japanese Aircraft and Armament,'~
Informational Intelligence Summary No. 43-26,
Office AC/AS, Intelligence.
6. RANKS AND INSIGNIA.
SEF
SEF
2E M/B
SE T/B
SER
SE D/B
2E M/B
SER
(Float plane)
SER
(Floatplane)
SER
(Floatplane)
SER
(Floatplane)
a. The dark uniforms of Japanese naval of-
ficers are distinguished by cuff bands; white
uniforms, by shoulder-boards. Army officers
wear their insignia on collar patches. Both
Army and Navy officers have the same titles of
rank. The words Kaigun ("Navy") and Rikugun ("Army") are prefixed to avoid confusion.
b. Bo th Japanese air services use enlisted men
as pilots and members of air crews. In the
naval enlisted ranks, all ratings below warrant
officer wear insignia on the right arm; warrant
officers wear cuff bands and shoulder-boards
similar to commissioned officers. Army enlisted
ranks are designated, like o"fficers, by collar
patches.
(Comparative ranks and grades are:
listed in Appendix N.)
103
�0
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�(
Appendix A
AIRCRAFT
•
Page
· 106
~ection
I. U. S. Service Aircraft Designations
U.
S. SERVICE AIRCRAFT DESIGNATIONS
I. Army Air Forces
Aircraft are designated by a "fighting" name
and by a letter or letters denoting their function
plus a serial number allotted to the prototype.
Subsequent modifications are denoted by the
addition of a letter following the number. Thus,
the Warhawk, P-40, is the 40th single-seater
Fighter designed for the Army and the P-40F is
the sixth modification of this aircraft.
Aircraft in the experimental stage are given
the prefix "X."
No indication of the manufacturer is given by
the designation.
The functional symbols are as follows:
Symbol
Type
A Light or Dive-Bomber
AT Advanced Trainer
B Heavy or Medium Bomber
BC Basic Combat*
BT Basic Trainer
C Transport
CG Glider
F Reconnaissance
L Liaison (Short Range)
0 Observation
OA Observation (Amphibian)
P Pursuit (Fighter or Interceptor)
•Basic Combat is a type similar to Advanced Trainer.
106
Symbol
Type
PT
R
Primary Trainer
Restricted (no longer "first line")
TG
Training Glider
UC
X
Utility (for cargo airplanes of capacity
less than 1400 lbs. or 8 persons)
Experimental
Y
Service Test
II. Naval Air Service
Aircraft are designated by a "fighting" name
and by a letter or letters denoting their function,
followed by a letter indicating the manufacturer.
The second and subsequent different aircraft
built by each manufacturer for similar functions
are designated by serial numbers inserted before
the manufacturer's letter. Thus, the Catalina
PBY was the first Patrol Bomber (PB) built by
the Consolidated Company (Y); the Coronado
PB2 Y is an entirely different aircraft and is the
second Patrol Bomber type designed by the
same company for the Navy. Modifications of
the original airplane are denoted by a number
following the manufacturer's letter; thus the
PBY-5 is the fifth modification of the original
PBY.
Aircraft in an experimental stage are given
the prefix "X."
The function symbols and manufacturer's .
identification letters are on the following page:
,·
�AIRCRAFT
APPENDIX A
Type
Symbol
A
B
F
G
(
1
JR
N
OS
PB
R
SB
SN
so
TB
X
ZN
1
Amphibian
Bomber
Fighter
Transport (single-engine)
Utility
Utility-T~ansport
Primary Trainer
0 bserva tion-Scou ting 1
Patrol Bomber
Transport (multi-engine)
Scout Bomber
Advanced Trainer
Scouting Observation 2
Torpedo Bomber
Experimental
Non-rigid air ship (blimp)
Used on battleships.
2
Letter
Manufacturer
A
B
C
D
F
Brewster
Boeing or Beach
Curtiss
Douglas
Grumman
North American
Bell
Martin
Naval Aircraft Factory
Lockheed
Spartan
Ryan
Stearman or Sikorsky (old)
J
L
M
N
0
p
R
s
u
y
Chance-Vought
Consolidated
Used on cruisers.
107
�Appendix B
.
TACTICS
•
Section
I. Aerial Tactics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
II. Combat Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
111. Tactics Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I. AERIAL TACTICS
Tactics constantly change and S-2 must be
alert to report a:ll changes to higher headquarters and to the tactical officer of his unit after
obtaining any new facts from his crews. He
must also assimilate and impart to the operations officer and designated command officers
complete information on tactical changes reported in standard intelligence publications.
II. COMBAT REPORTS
1. After combat, S-2 will write his report,
consolidating and coordinating the information
received from all members of his squadron or
group. The more complete knowledge of tactics S-2 has, the better equipped he will be to
make such reports. Likewise, he will be better
fitted to pass on to the crews all changes m
tactics.
2. The following narrative is merely an
abbreviated sample of what might have taken
place at an interrogation. The pilot has just
landed and taxied his Thunderbolt to the dispersal bay. The white tapes on the muzzles of
his guns are blown off, showing that he has
been in combat. He climbs out. Captain
Emory C. Johnson, Squadron S-2, goes to meet
him.
"How did it go, Gus?"
"It was a shambles. We bounced them near
Zeebrugge, and if it hadn't been for my splitessing all over the sky, I'd have had it. Blue
Leader peeled off at 32,000. Then I pulled up
into a wing-over, and dived down and there
was one of them straight and level.".
"What kind, Gus?"
"190! At about 400 yards I gave him a twosecond squirt, th_en he banked left. I zoomed
up and into an Immelman. I saw strikes on
108
Page
I 08
I 08
III
his fuselage, and then two Jerries sort of
chandelled up, and suddenly there were four of
them line astern. I was wide open but I
thought my -flaps were down and I was standing
still. Then one of our boys shot Tail-End
Charlie.''
"Did you see him go down?"
"Yes-flaming. Then their leader was banking steep and getting onto our boy in back.
They were above and I couldn't get in. It
was a Lufberry-three J erries and some more
below and to the left going fast, line astern
staggered loosely. I split-essed and dived onto
the leader. They started rat-racing, weaving
way up and down, turning like a lazy-eight,
trying all the time for a head-on.
"About that time another Thunderbolt dived
past me. He was pouring on the coal, and three
19o's were squirting at him but they didn't
follow him, instead they tacked onto the other
I go's and formed into a bigger and better Lufberry. That new boy just handed me three
more 19o's when, dammit, I already had my
hands full."
"Did you see how our boy made out?"
"No, but he probably went for the deck,
kept everything against the firewall and got
back at nought feet. He was greasing for home
with 52 inches for sure.
"And while he was doing that, those Jerries
were in a great big Lufberry, a left-handed
Lufberry, so I dived inside and flew in the
opposite direction, slow rolling and squirting
at every thing that whizzed by-that turned it
into a shambles.
"Some of them looped, some weaved, some
pulled the stick back into their bellies and went
into a power spin, but it all turned into a mess
of Jerries with me in the middle. I snap
�APPENDIX B
(
(
rolled-I d-id vertical reverses-but no matter
what I did, one of them would pop up at six
o'clock and squirt at me. Finally I did such
violent split-essing that I wound up in a power
spin but I got out and dived to compressibility.
That shook them, and I got home, thank God."
"Good work, Gus."
Gus walked toward his plane, then shouted,
"Look at my prop! Just look what those *?$*?*
did to my prop! And it was the smoothest prop
in this squadron! Why, those *?$*$?*?*!!"
3. Captain Johnson, being a good S-2, perfectly understood the fighter pilot's chatter and
translated it into the following S-2 Combat
Report:
a. Twelve Thunderbolts of 334 Fighter
Squadron were airborne from Manston at 1100
hours 26 November 1943.
b. At 32,000 feet 1 near Zeebrugge, the squadron attacked nine FW-19o's from above. Blue
Flight led the attack as directed by the Squadron Leader, Maj. J. J. Namis.
c. Capt. Richards, Blue I, attacked.
d. Lieut. Williams, Blue II, following Blue I,
attacked.
e. Lieut. Martin, Blue III, attacked.
f. Lieut. Gus Oliver, Blue IV, attacked one
of the FW-19o's from above, reporting that he
opened fire at 400 yards closing to 1oo yards
with a two second burst. The FW-190 turned
left abruptly, Lieut. Oliver zoomed upward in
an Immelman. He observed strikes on the
enemy fuselage. The plane disappeared from
his view. He observed a Thunderbolt of his
squadron attack four enemy planes and shoot
one down in flames. Soon after, a Thunderbolt
believed to be the same attacker dived toward
the ground while under attack by three FW19o's. Lieut. Oliver then attacked six FW-19o's
below. In the ensuing combat he fired several
bursts with unobserved results, at a group of
FW-19o's which were circling in line astern and
which he attacked by flying inside the circle in
opposite direction. He landed safely at Manston at 1220 hours with slight damage to his
plane. 625 rounds of ammunition were fired.
(Camera-gun films in process of development).
EMORY C. JOHNSON,
Capt, AC.
S-2, 334 Fighter Squadron.
4. In rece1vmg his daily combat reports, S-2
should be on the constant watch for changes in
enemy tactics; they should be reported to higher
TACTICS
headquarters immediately so that information
about the change could be rapidly disseminated
and so that A-2 could include it in a periodic
tactical report such as the following one which
covers a six-month's period of combat in the
southwest Pacific.
"Our first interception was by three Zekes.
They intercepted one plane; for a few minutes
they paralleled it, obviously looking it over and
pacing it. Then one Zeke dove at the tail and
was immediately shot down. The other two did
not attack and turned away after our plane had
dropped to sea level to protect its belly.
"During the next month and a half the attacks were predominantly from the tail and
waist and generally from above. All attacks
were individual. Sometimes they were pressed
home, and sometimes they were not. Gunnery
did not seem too accurate and damage to our
aircraft, with a few exceptions, was relatively
slight.
"There was, however, a noticeable difference
in pilotage. Interceptions of reconnaissance
were not too vigorous and the pilots seemed
only moderately skillful and inclined to indulge
in aerobatics. These planes were land-based.
Interception over convoys was much better,
however, and the pilots pressed their attacks
without stunting.
"Few, if any, serious attacks were made by
single planes, whether our aircraft were alone
or in formation. Usually the enemy had numerical superiority, flights varying from six to
fifteen. These numbers were not used to advantage, however, as the custom seemed to be
for a few planes to press individual attacks following. one another at slight intervals while the
rest were not too eager or persistent.
"Gradually the types of attack changed. Some
passes were made at the belly but these were
soon discontinued, the reason not being clear,
but perhaps due to the fact that the attempts
were .made on lead planes of a formation which
could be protected by the following planes.
More and more attacks were made frontally,
generally starting from above at two and ten
o'clock. The approach from above permitted
the top turret to do effective work.
"It also became obvious that the enemy was
watching closely to note any injuries done to
our planes that would result in an advantage,
however slight. If. a gun jammed, or if a waist
gunner let go of his gun to refill his cans, the
109
�APPENDIX B
TACTICS
next pass would come from that point. If one
engine smoked or was feathered, further attacks
were concentrated on that side. If a plane
lagged or· strayed from the formation, it was the_
prime object of attack. If no plane seemed to
offer a particularly inviting target, attacks were
concentrated on the lead plane in an effort to
get the leader.
"Evidently the enemy relies to a great extent on the maneuverability of his plane and
the number of unexpected attacks which could
not be made by an ordinary plane has increased.
Some of these have been:
"(a) A vertical dive at the waist, starting
some 300 yards above our aircraft and pulling
mit on a level about 100 yards below;
"(b) A tight corkscrew onto the top of our
aircraft which presents a most difficult target to
the top turret;
" ( c) Vertical dives through the center of
a formation;
"(d) A level approach from below ending
in a vertical stall from which the plane would
fall off, recover, and repeat its attack;
"( e) A level approach skidding widely,
combined with weaving;
CHART E
THE TRIPLE THREAT
C
11 O'CLOCK
HIGH
1 O'CLOCK
.HIGH
HIGH
TACTICS DE~CRIPTION:
300 YARDS I
I
I
I
\
I
\
I
\
\
I
I
I
I
/
\11,I/
+'
LEltL '
(STACKED DOWN
BY ELEME NTS)
+
~
LE:tL '
110
--1..
12 O'CLOCK
4
RIC
ATTACK S DIRECTED IJGIUNST
FORTRESSES BY SINGLE
ENG/Ne GERMAN AIRCRAFT.
THE FIGHTERS, 'FLYING
PARALLEL. TO AND OUTOF
RANGc, Pl.ILL APP'T?OX/MATEl Y
2000 - 2500 YOS. AHEAD ANO
500 '/OS A80V5 FOR T HE
C0/111/IIIENCEM&NT OF THEIR
DI VES . THE SAME OIV/NGA TT A C KS AR~ OFTEN MADE
FR OM T HE RE'AR OF
FO~TRESS FORMATIONS .
�TACTICS
APPENDIX B
(
"(f) O ne plane on our level just out of
range to act as a decoy and attract attention,
while another plane will come in fast from the
opposite side;
out about any one of them until after he has
attacked.
"( c) Be ready for the unexpected. Something that you would call a suicide attack may
seem like a good idea to him.
" ( d) Their gunnery is not as good as their
Hying. Be thankful for this."
"(g) Use of shadow in failing light to get
our aircraft silhouetted and still leave their
plane practically invisible until tracers disclosed
its position.
"By way of summary, the following thoughts,
as bearing upon this area, are pertinent:
"(a) Do not underestimate the Zeke.
III. TACTICS DIAGRAMS. Charts E and F
are diagrammatic illustrations of enemy tactics.
While tactics are forever changing, a hard-working S-2 can reduce each important change to a
diagram and pass on the information fo his
own, and other, crews in a form that can quickly
be understood.
It is
most maneuverable, fast and hard to hit.
"(b) The Japanese pilots are good. Not
all of them are tops, but you won't find that
CHART F
AIR-TO-AIR BOMBING
\
\
''
/
/
/
RELEASE POINT~......____
///
~
~v~
\
' /,~.,tl.....
' ·\
I
/
'{
//
P-7
~~
__
~~
I
/l
/
/
//
/
/
//
,
/
\
'
I
\
I
\
/
\
I
rf
/
\ I
'.{
I I
I \
BOMB
/
EXPLOSION~\
POINT
~
\
•,
,
rf
II
\
I
I
TACTICS DESCRIPTION:
FAILED TO
EXPL..OD€
ATTACKS DIRECTED AGAINST
BOMBER FORMATIONS ARE GENERALLY F'"ROM FRONr
ANO ABOVE .
ABO Ve
BOMBS DROPPED
LEAD SOllAORON.
SEVERAL BOMBS.
FROM
1000' TO 2.000'
EACH FIGHTER MAY CARRY
111
�Appendix C
AIRCRAFT ARMAMENT
•
Section
I. Types of Ammunition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
II. Characteristics of U. S. Aircraft Armament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ill. German Aircraft Armament .... ..... .. ..... .... .. . . ........... ·
IV. Japanese Aircraft Armament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
V. Other Aircraft Armament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
VI. Types of Gunsights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
VII. Aerial Gunnery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I. TYPES OF AMMUNITION
5. High Explosive: Used m 4.5" U. S.
Rocket.
6. Combinations. a. High Explosive and Incendiary: U. S. 20mm cannon uses this smallest
explosive ammunition. High explosive is tetrol
and behind that is incendiary composition.
Fuse is supersensitive.
b. High Explosive and Tracer (S. D.): Used
in U.S. 37mm cannon. The self-destroying
tracer operates like the incendiary in the 20mm
high explosive ·and incendiary.
c. High Explosive, Armor Piercing Cap and
Tracer: Used in U.S. 75mm cannon.
d. Armor Piercing and Tracer: Used in U.S.
20mm, 37mm and 75mm cannons.
1. Ball: Normal bullet as used in rifle. U. S.
no longer uses this type even in practice.
2. Armor-Piercing:
Very hard steel-core.
Used in U. S.. 30 cal. and .50 cal. MG's.
3. Incendiary: Central core filled with incendiary composition which burns slowly with a
dark flame. Used in U. S.. 30 cal. and .50 cal.
MG's.
4. Tracer: Phosphorescent compound set in
recess at base of bullet is ignited by the charge
when it leaves the muzzle and burns as the
projectile passes through the air. Used in
U.S .. 30 cal. and .50 cal. MG's.
II.
Page
112
112
113
113
113
I 13
113
Characteristics of U. S. Aircraft Armament
20 mm
37 mm
75 mm
231
1236
4.5" Rocket
.30 cal.
.50 cal.
Weight of Gun (lbs.)
22
61
Length of Gun (inches)
40
57
94
go
111
120
2775
2900
2884
2000
1970
850
Muzzle Velocity
(ft. per sec.)
Rate of Fire (rds. per min.)
1200-1400
Maximum Range (yds.)
Tracer Range (yds.)
Weight of Projectile (lbs.)
Weight of five second burst
per single gun)
112
I
~~-1
600-750
165
3-6
9200
8300
4500
7200
6800
75°
600
1600
1800
2000
3500
750
1500
2000
4000
.022
.I
.29-.37
1.34-1.66
14-15
2.2
6.7
16.5
-----
Max. Effective Range (yds.)
800-950
IO~
21
14-15
80
4600
38.4
�AIRCRAFT ARMAMENT
APPENDIX C
III.
(
Name & Size
of Gun
Rate of Fire
(Rds. per
min.)
MG 15-7.9 mm
1000
MG 17-7.9 mm
10oo-uoo
MG 81-7.92 mm
1200-1500
MG 131-13 mm
goo
MG 151/ 15-15 mm
700
MG 151/20-20 mm
750-800
MG FF (Oerlikon,
FF-20 mm)
400
MK 101-30 mm
Single Shot
Automatic
Tasuku-7.7 mm
(Modification of Vickers MK III British
.3o3")
+ Tracer, AP + Incendiary, Incendiary
+ Tracer, AP + Incendiary, Incendiary
Ball, AP, AP + Tracer, AP + Incendiary, Incendiary
Tracer, HE + Tracer, HE + Incendiary + Tracer, AP + Tracer
Tracer, AP + Tracer, HE + Tracer (S. D.), HE + Incendiary +
Ball, AP, AP
.024 lbs.
Ball, AP, AP
.024 lbs.
HE (S. D.), HE
AP
Incendiary
+
+
Incendiary
Ball, Tracer, HE (S. D.), HE
+ Tracer (S. D.)
+
.13 lbs.
(S. D.,), AP, HE
+
+
HE,
.24 lbs.
Incendiary
.31 lbs.
Tracer (S. D.), AP, AP
+ Tracer
.51 lbs.(?)
HE
Japanese Aircraft Armament
Rate of Fire
(Rds. per
min.)
Types of Ammunition
AP, Incendiary, HE, Tracer
Tasuku-12.7 mm
(Copy of .50 cal.
Browning MG)
500
Ball, HE, Ball
Oerlikon, FF-20 mm
(Produced under Iicense from Swiss)
400
HE
+
V. OTHER AIRCRAFT ARMAMENT
British
a . .303 cal. MG (Vickers and Browning)
bJ 20mm cannon
(Hispano-Suiza and
Oerlikon)
c. 40mm cannon (Bofors)
d . .50 cal. MG (U.S .. 50 cal. Browning)
2.
.024 lbs.
.079 lbs.
Tracer (S. D.)
700
1.
Weight of
Projectile
Types of Ammunition
IV.
Name & Size
of Gun
German Aircraft Armament
Russian
a. 7.62 mm MG (Shkass)
b. 12.7mm MG (Berezin)
c. 20mm cannon (Shvak)
d. 23mm cannon (Vya)
3. Italian
a. 7.7mm MG (Breda)
b. 12.7mm MG (Breda)
c. 20mm cannon (Breda)
VI. TYPES OF GUNSIGHTS
1. A gunsight mus_t permit correction for the
various forces affecting a projectile fired from
a gun mounted on an aircraft in flight. These
are: propellant force, gravity drop, air resist-
Weight of
Projectile
(Interchangeable with British .303")
.02 lbs.
Tracer (Not interchangeable with U. •S. .50 cal.)
.075 lbs.
.31 lbs.
ance, · rotation (caused by rifling of barrel),
windage jump and mount velocity (due to
movement of aircraft). In addition, the sight
should permit correction for _the movement of
the target.
2. Types of Sight. a. Ring and bead. Used
in flexible gun installations and consisting of
ring mounted near breech block, bead near
muzzle. In using this sight, the eye must be
_kept very steady while aiming.
b. Reflector-type optical sight.
Optically
projects a ring-and-bead or other sighting pattern upon the target airplane. Can be simply
and speedily set for any given target aircraft
span at any given range. Permits slight movement of eye.
c. Automatic.
Automatically corrects for
deflection, gravity etc.
VII. AERIAL GUNNERY
I. Position Firing.
a. A new system of
sighting and firing has recently been developed
by the AAF. This system, known as "position
firing," is a method of calculating lead or de-
113
�APPENDIX C
flection based on the attacking enemy fighter's
angle of attack and subsequent angles along a
pursuit curve which the enemy fighter must
follow to register continuous hits. For further
information concerning this new method of
aerial firing, see "Get That Fighter," prepared
AIRCRAFT ARMAMENT
by AAF, Operations Analysis Section and
AAFTAD in collaboration with U. S. Navy
and Central Flexible Gunnery Instructors
School, Ft. Meyers, Fla., and "Handbook for
Instructors," to be prepared by the Central
Flexible Gunnery Instructors School.
(
114
�Appendix D
ENEMY BOMBS
•
Section
I. German Bombs .. . . .. ...... ... . .. ........ . .... . ........ . . .. .
II. Japanese Bombs . .. .. . . . . ... .. ....... .. ........... .. ..... .. .
· Page
115
116
I. GERMAN BOMBS
1. Demolition
a. General Purpose S. C.
Weight
in kg.
Length of
Body in
inches
28-31
47
500
1000
1200
1800
2500
50
250
500
1000
1400
1700
52-60
65.5-75
73.5
107
?
Remarks
Single fuze pocket. Screamers may be attached. Often used as a
camouflet.
One or two fuze pockets. May be a time bomb. May have long
spike in nose to prevent ricochet.
May have one or two fuze pockets. May contain . a long delay fuze.
Single fuze pocket. May use a Kopfring. Known as Hermann.
Single fuze pocket. May use a Kopfring.
Single fuze pocket. Known as Satan.
Two fuze pockets. Known as Max.
b. Semi-Armor Piercing-S.D.
May have time fuze.
23.5
Single
fuze pocket.
36
Single
fuze pocket.
32.5
Single
fuze pocket. Known as Esau.
57.8
Single
fuze
pocket. Known as Fritz.
75
Single fuze pocket.
92
c. Rocket-Armor Piercing
500
1000
47
81
2. Fragmentation
2
2.31
10
15
May be used as glide bomb.
May be used as glide bomb.
Antipersonnel butterfly; bomb never should be moved or disturbed
as it is supersensitive.
Body produces about 700 fragments on explosion.
3. Incendiary
2.2
50
50
9.75
9.25
28
110
30
40
210
62
Explosive in tail.
TNT in antipersonnel attachment.
Sprengband thermite fire pot.
Benzine, phosphorus, rubber.
TNT bursters and oil filler. Known as C 250 Flam.
TNT bursters and oil filler. Known as C 500 Flam.
115
�ENEMY BOMBS
APPENDIX D
4. Incendiary Clusters
A cluster occupying storage space of:
50 kg. bomb
500 kg. bomb
1000 kg. bomb
Will carry the following number of
1 kg. incendiaries:
Or the following number
of 2 kg. incendiaries:
36
16
184
u6
37 2
620
(
II. JAPANESE BOMBS
1. Demolition
a. General Purpose
Weight
in kg.
50
60
100
250
Length of Body
in inches
31
35.4
Fuze
Nose
Nose
Nose
Nose and tail
39~75
Nose and tail
48
Tail
1 4·3
Nose
22
Nose
26.4
Nose
24
21
b. Semi-Armor Piercing
250
c. Armor Piercing
800
Fragmentation
15
3. Jncendiary
2.
50
4. Chemical
50
116
(
�Appendix E
(
ANTIAIRCRAFT ARTILLERY
•
Section
I. Antiaircraft Artillery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
II. German Antiaircraft Weapons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ill. Japanese Antiaircraft Weapons . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SECTION I
ANTIAIRCRAFT ARTILLERY
1. MISSION. Antiaircraft artillery defends
ground forces and installations against air attack by destroying enemy aircraft, by forcing
them to fly at such altitudes and adopt such
evasive action that their bombing is inaccurate,
or by compelling them to abandon their mission.
2. EVASIVE ACTION AGAINST ENEMY
ANTIAIRCRAFT. (Extract from memorandum issued by Eighth Bomber Command,
Eighth Air Force):
a. An airplane which flies a steady course at
constant altitude for several minutes in a cloudless sky becomes an easy problem for the antiaircraft gunner. Safety for aircraft against enemy
antiaircraft depends upon making the gunner's
job difficult. Evasive action against AA fire must
be planned and executed by all air crews.
b. Altitude. The best way to defeat the antiaircraft guns would be to fly ~t altitudes greater
than the maximum fuze range. To these maximum altitudes-32,500 feet for the 88mm gun;
36,750 feet for the 105mm gun-the guns can
fire a single shot at a plane, or throw up a predicted concentration or barrage; but to maintain continuous pointed fire for longer than 20
seconds at an airplane flying at 300 miles per
hour, maximum altitudes are 26,250 feet for
the 88mm and 31,000 for the 105mm. The total
effectiveness of an antiaircraft battery decreases
by 50 per cent for each 5,000-ft. increase in the
target's altitude. For example, if the effectiveness of a battery is 344 (in arbitrary units) at
10,000 feet, it is reduced to 86 at 20,000 feet
Page
I 17
118
I 19
and to 2 1.5 at 30,000 feet. Crews should at all
times maintain the greatest possible height commensurate with bombing accuracy.
c. Changes in Course. In any type of antiaircraft fire control, the path of the target must be
followed either visually or by radio detectors
and the future position of the target predicted.
The most effective evasive tactic is a series of
irregular changes in course at an angle of at
least 20 degrees. At 15,000 feet where the times
of flight of AA shells vary from 8 to 30 seconds, the new course should probably not be
held for more than 30 seconds; at 25,000 feet,
where the ti_mes of flight for AA shells vary
from 16 to 30 seconds, the new course should
probably not be held for more than 40 seconds.
No hard and fast rule as to time may be laid
down, except that the new course should not
be held long enough for the director crew to
track and predict, or the shell to arrive, nor
held long enough to allow the course to be
"ironed out." The turn into the bombing run
and away after releasing the bombs should be
made as sharp as possible.
d. Changes in Altitude. The most vital element of data in prediction is that of altitude. A
change in altitude means a change in time of'
flight, in the quadrant elevation, and in the·
deflection or azimuth. Changes in altitude·
should, therefore, be made whenever possible,
except during the actual bombing run. These
changes should always be greater than 500 feet
and should be irregular. They should not be
taken in a straight line or at a constant angle:
of climb or dive because they could then be pre...
dicted. Rather, the plane should dive steeply,
level out, then take a shallow dive.
117
�......
.,,.,,►
m
CD
z
SECTION II
C
x
m
GERMAN AA WEAPONS
Weight
of
Weapon
Projectile
(pounds)
7.92mm
MG42
20mm
.26
1.4
Practical
Rate of
Fire
Maximum
Ceiling
Effective
Ceiling
Maximum
Hor. Range
Muzzle
Velocity
(rpm)
(feet)
(feet)
(yards)
(f/s)
300-400
3000 1
2400 6
5000
2800
120-200
7200 2
35006
5230
2950
60
13800 2
5000 6
6000 6
7200
2690
2
12300
2950
Elev.
Lethal
Burst
Radius
(tons)
(deg.)
(ft.)
Remarks
Standard
40mm
2.2
80
16200
47mm
3.3
20
17000 2
7000 6
10350
2620
50mm
4.8
130
18370 2
10000 5
14800
2755
3
4
15500
2780
14·3
20
30000
88mm
Flak 41
20.7
20
42500 3
35000 4
22000
3280
88mm
Flak 36
20
15-20
32500 3
26250 4
16200
2690
90mm
22,4
8-10
30000 3
13700
2540
105mm
33.2
10-15
36750 3
31000 4
19100
2890
128mm
57.2
8
40000 3
33000 4
19600
2890
88.6
6-8
42500 3
36000 4
34000
345°
25000
Weight
In action
·5
-20 to go
Standard. Also have
barreled mount
a
four -
Standard
2.1
-5 to go
Similar to British service equipment
-7 to 85
Skoda 1936. Very few used
Some used around Berlin
2.9
-5 to 85
25
Obsolete
Flak 41 Replacing Flak 36
-8 to 88
· Standard
4.9
o to 80
11.6
Limited by Tracer Burn-out Point.
Limited by Tracer Burn-out Point and Self-Destroying . Element.
3
Limited by 30 Sec. Time Fuse. Can be used for barrage fire.
4 The maximum vertical range for a directly approaching aircraft at 300 m.p.h. which
can be engaged for
elevation of 70 degrees.
5
For accurate engagement.
Very few used
50
o to 85
Used mostly in static roles.
Mobile units exist. Standard
75
z►
-I
65
Dual purpose coast defense and
AA
l>
$6
n
:-a
J>
~
1
2
20
seconds with the last round being fired at a quadrant
►
:-a
:::!
rr-
m
~
�>
"tll
"tll
m
z
C
x
SECTION Ill
m
JAPANESE AA WEAPONS
Weapon
.Weight of
Projectile
(Pounds)
Rate of
Fire
(rpm)
Maximum
Ceiling
(Feet)
Effective
Ceiling
(Feet)
Maximum
Hor. Range
(Yards)
Muzzle
Velocity
(f/s)
Weight
in
Action
Elev.
(deg.)
Remarks
7.7mm MG
Hotchkiss
.029
45o
4000
3000 5
4587
2300
ll5
o to 80
Air cooled special mount
13.2mm MG
Hotchkiss
.114
45o
13000
30006
7000
2250
213
o to 85
Replacing 7.7mm MG 4.75 sec. to
tracer burn out.
20mm
Oerlikon Type
.55
120
12000
7000 6
5450
2720
836
-10 to 85
Dual purpose AA/AT, in quantity
production.
1400
37mm
40mm
50006
1.54
2.2
100
15500 2
6000
6
75mm
M1922
12
19725
11000
2300
198
-5 to 85
2800
35.2
8
36000 3
26000'
Believed to be Bofors lost by British.
Known to exist. Ballistics unknown.
11000
3
32800 3
120mm
545°
10000
57mm
105mm
New pompom with three barrels.
Ballistics unknown.
3000 6
4800
-10 to 85
15200
2450
539°
o to 85
J aps place main reliance on this gun.
19620
2300
11000
o to 85
One hour to emplace.
Dual purpose.
able.
No ballistics avail -
Limited by Tracer Burn-out Point.
Limited by Tracer Burn-out Point and Self-Destroying Element.
3
Li_m ited by 30 Sec. Time Fuse. Can be used for barrage fire.
'The maximum vertical range for a directly approachin.g aircraft at 300 m.p.h. which can be engaged for 20 seconds with the last round fired at 70° quadrant elevation.
5
For accurate engagement.
1
2
......
"-0
�APPENDIX E
e. Group and Combat Wing Formations.
When Groups and Combat Wings approach a
target, the problem of evasive action becomes
more difficult as the size of the formation increases. Evasive action is limited by the ability
to maneuver the whole formation, and this decreases as the number of planes increases. In
addition, as the area size of the formation increases, it is obvious that, because of the dispersion of fire, shells aimed at one airplane may hit
another. Plans for evasive action for Groups
and Combat Wings must, therefore, be carefully
considered. Emphasis should be placed upon
the ability to maintain a defensive formation, to
bomb the target at different altitudes and on
different headings, yet be so coordinated that
the formation may be assembled at the rallying
point without undue loss in time or in defensive formation. The particular plan adopted
must be checked by bombardiers and navigators
and must be meticulously covered in the briefing.
Over small defended areas the Groups should
attack at approximately the same time; yet the
aircraft should come in on different headings
and at different altitudes in order to defeat the
antiaircraft fire. As the size of the formation
becomes larger, the angle of attack separating
ANTIAIRCRAFT ARTILLERY
the outside Groups will increase; this angle,
however, should not exceed 45 degrees, thus preventing attack from all ground defenses except
those capable of firing into the area inclosed in
the 45-degree approach.
(
When enemy fighter opposition is the determining factor, it may not be possible, because of
the necessity for supporting defensive groups, to
split the formation for the approach to the target. However, changes in altitude should be
planned, and as training and the ability to
maneuver in large formations improves, the plan
for evasive action may become more complex.
- 3. EVASIVE ACTION AGAINST ENEMY
AUTOMATIC WEAPONS.
a. Altitude should be kept below 50 feet.
b. Use cover: trees, hills, valleys, defilade,
clouds.
c. Change altitude and course: corkscrews,
skid turns, porpoising; use speed and maneuverability.
d. Fly down sun and, if possible, down wind.
EVASIVE ACTION MUST BE: Deliberate;
Irregular; Planned.
(
MAKE THE GUNNERS' JOB TOUGH.
(
120
�Appendix F
(
RADAR
•
1. GENERAL. Radar is an electronic device
for locating unseen objects, particularly enemy
aircraft and vessels, at a distance.
2. PRINCIPLES
OF OPERATION.
a.
Radar apparatus emits beamed radio waves
or impulses which, striking an object, are reflected. These returning impulses indicate the
direction and distance, and sometimes the nature, of the object.
b. Radar beams travel in virtually a straight
line, and do not bend with the curvature of the
earth. Therefore height for location of radar
apparatus is an advantage until such height is
reached that ground echoes interfere with the
proper operation of the instrument.
(Most
enemy coastal stations in Europe are sited
around 200 feet above sea level, but the Japanese at Kiska used_ stations as high as 500
feet.)
c. Radar apparatus requires, for most efficient
operation, a clear sweep for its beam. Interposing hills, buildings, or other obstructions, will
cause "shadow areas." (See Figure 15, page 122.)
3. ENEMY RADAR. a. Radar is widely used
by the Germans and Japanese. A near approach
to their territory without being detected is almost impossible, particularly along coastlines
where virtually no "shadow areas" exist.
b. S-2 will accumulate all possible information on enemy radar stations, including location,
maximum range and "shadow areas" and will
show the location on his situation map.
4. AIRBORNE RADAR. Airborne radar
apparatus is used for night detection of enemy
aircraft and surface vessels, and at night or in
fog for locating islands, coastlines, hills and
mountains.
SPACE NOT COVERED
BY RADAR..
LOW RADAR APPARATUS
__,/
SPACE NOT COVER.S:0
BY RADAR.
~
Figure 14.
121
�RADAR
APPENDIX F
(
RADAR. APJ>A~ATU S
SWEEPING 360°
Figure 15.
Houses and mountains alike affect radar's efficiency.
122
�(
Appendix G
WEATHER
•
Section
I. Sources of Weather Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
II. Contents of Weather Forecast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I. SOURCES OF WEATHER INFORMATION
1. In combat theaters, the following weather
sources are available:
a. Friendly weather stations within the area.
b. Reconnaissance flights over . enemy territory.
c. Radio interception of enemy weather observation data and forecasts.
. d. Interrogation of combat crews.
II. CONTENTS OF WEATHER FORECAST
1. The following data would ordinarily be
included in a weather forecast for a routine
flight.
a. State of weather (overcast, broken, scattered, clear, or combinations thereof).
b. Precipitation (by type).
c. Ceiling.
d. Visibility in miles.
e. Surface wind (velocity and direction).
f. Winds aloft (velocity and direction).
g. Best flying altitudes.
h. Frontal conditions.
2. The following is a specimen briefing by a
Group ·w eather Officer in the Eighth Air Force,
England.
Time of Forecast
1230 GCT to 2400 GCT
Gen eral Synoptic Situation
Entire area under influence of fresh continental polar air mass. No frontal passage expected within the forecast period. Light rain
along the Wes tern Coast of France with generally clear weather prevailing over the remain-
Page
123
123
der of the area. High center moving 25-30
m.p.h. NNE will be centered over Central
France by end of period.
Route Forecast
Base to Beachy Head: Clear, ceiling unlim-·
ited, visibility 15 miles. Winds aloft: 120° at
30 m.p.h. at all altitudes.
Beachy Head to Laon: Clear, ceiling unlimited, visibility 15 miles. Scattered cirrus clouds
over Northern France. Winds aloft: 5,000 ft.,
160 ° at 25 m.p.h.; 10,000 ft., 170° at 30 m.p.h.;
20, 000 ft., 170 ° at 40 m.p.h.
Laon to Frankfurt: CAVU conditions. Winds
aloft: 10,000 ft., ·170 ° at 35 m.p.h.; 20,000 ft.,
185 ° at _45 m.p.h.
At Target: CAVU conditions. Surface temperature 24 ° C, mean temperature 7 ° C, temperature at altitude, ·-16 ° C. Winds aloft:
5,000 ft., 160 ° at 25 m.p.h.; 10,000 ft., 170 ° at
35 m.p.h. ; 20,000 ft., 180 ° at 45 m.p.h. Surface
pressure 29.94 inches.
Frankfurt to Channel: CAVU conditions.
Winds aloft: 5,000 ft., 170 ° ·at 25 m.p.h.; 10,000
ft., 180 ° at 35 m.p.h.; 20,000 ft., 190 ° at 45
m.p.h.
At Base: No change in conditions.
Icing Level on route: 14,000 ft.
3. The foregoing would ordinarily be presented to all members of the crew prior to the
mission. In addition, the navigator and bombardier receive a more detailed briefi~g by the
Weather Officer at a special session and the
navigator carries with him a copy of the forecast on a "flimsy."
123
�Appendix H
(
BOOBY TRAPS
•
1. Booby traps are conceale.d explosive mechanisms designed for effect against personnel.
They are hidden in buildings or localities abandoned by the enemy and so placed as to cause
them to be set off inadvertently by our troop!·
2. Common places in which the enemy may
place booby traps are:
a. Roads and Paths. Cuts, embankments,
blind bends, bridges, culverts, obstacles, wooded
stretches, junctions, crossroads and general
debris.
b. Open Country. Woods, trees, posts, gates,
fences, paths, hedges, obstacles, stores and
dumps.
c. Buildings and dugouts. Steps, floors, doors,
windows, cupboards, passages, furniture, fireplaces, water taps, closets, toilets, stoves, refrigerators, telephones, light switches, floor coverings, pictures, books, documents, souvenirs,
musical instruments, and kitchen utensils.
d. Equipment.
Wrecked and abandoned
planes, trucks, automobiles, motorcycle.s, etc.
e. Allied and enemy dead.
f. Enemy aircraft abandoned in apparently
good condition should be viewed with suspicion
and carefully investigated by qualified experts.
It is a common enemy practice to insert explosives that will be set off by opening the
canopy, operating the controls, sitting in the
pilot's seat, etc. The same is often true of enemy
motor vehicles abandoned in apparently good
running order.
3. The following signs may indicate the existence of enemy booby traps:
a. Disturbed ground, especially after a rain.
b. Explosive wrappings, sawdust, nose caps
from shells, etc.
c. Traces of camouflage, withered vegetation,
etc., indicating some attempt at concealment.
d. Breaks in the continuity of vegetation,
dust, paintwork, woodwork, etc.
e. The presence of pegs, nails, electric leads,
or pieces of wire or cord for which there is no
apparent use.
f. Marks on trees, on paths, on the ground or
on walls or buildings without an obvious reason.
g. Minor obstructions of all kinds, on roads,
in trench systems and in buildings.
h. Irregular foot or wheeled traffic tracks, for
the presence of which there is no apparent
reason.
i. Any indication that an area has been carefully avoided by the enemy.
4. Souvenirs and trinkets should be viewed
with suspicion. Some booby traps of this sort
include:
a. Whistles that explode when blown.
b. Cigarette cases that explode when opened.
c. Pencils, fou.ntain pens, wallets, notebooks
that explode when examined or used.
d. Pistols, cameras, binoculars, or any small
piece of equipment lying around.
5. When the enemy retreats he invariably sets
booby traps and mines wherever and whenever
time will permit. All military personnel should
be on the alert against booby traps. If discovered, they must be conspicuously marked and
carefully avoided. Their neutralization should
be le£ t to trained technical personnel.
(
(
124
�Appendix I
(
SIGNALS
•
Page
Section
I. International Morse Code .................................... •
II. Worldwide Recognition System ................................. .
Ill. Semaphore Code ......................................... .
IV. Air Ground Liaison Panel Code ... ..... ............ .
V~ Phonetic Alphabet and International Flags and Pennants
125
126
126
127
128
SECTION I
CODE
INTERNATIONAL MORSE
1.
International Morse Code:
a. Alphabet
H
A
I
B
C
D
E
-
· -·
J
K
F
G --•
b. Numerals
2
L
M
N
0
-·-
x - •• y
s
-
• - --
z - - ·•
T
u
4
5
6
3 ···--
w ·--
•-- •
Q -- ·R
•- - -
·• - - -
V
---
p
•• •· -
8 - - - ··
9 ----·
-
0
....
-----
7
Special signs. (Not used m service communications.)
a (German) • _ . _
fi
(Spanish)
a {(Spanish) • _ _ • _
o (German)
a (Scandinavian)
ch (German, Spanish) _ _ _ _
ii (German) •• - d. Special Characters
Period (.)
Underline (----)
·- ·- ·Double
dash (=)
Comma (,)
- - •• - Colon (:)
Understood
- - - ···
Interrogation (?)
Error
·· - - ••
or request
Cross or end (+)
to repeat
Invitation to
Apostrophe (')
transmit
·----•
Hyphen or dash (-)
End of work
Wait
Separation between
Fraction bar (/)
whole number
•• ·
Brackets or
and fraction
•-- •parentheses
()
Is it correct
Starting signal
e. Distress, urgent and safety signals. (See general radio regulations annexed to International
Telecommunications Convention):
c.
- ···· ·- ···
- ·-·-
Distress call SOS
... _ _ _ •••
Urgent signal XXX
Safety signal TTT
__ _
-··-- ·· . -··125
�APPENDIX I
SIGNALS
SECTION II
1. W ORLDWIDE
R ECO GNITION SYSTEM
a. The Worldwide R ecognition System and
the flashing light, pyrotechnic and IFF pro-
cedure, prescribed thereby, is used by U. S.
and British services in all theaters of operation.
b. S-2 should obtain further information concerning this system immediately upon arrival
in a combat theater.
SECTION Ill
SEMAPHORE CODE
1G
3
I
~7M
9 0
4 J
u
V
t
NUMERALS FOLLOW
w
E
END OF MESSAGE(RE PEAT ED SEVERAL
F
126
~
~I
R
TIMES)
X
(
�SIGNALS
APPENDIX I
SECTION IV
I
AIR. GROUND
LIAISON
PANEL CODE
111 Ill IVV07 H n+
I
2.
4
3
6
5'
7
9
8
0
NUMERALS
I
IDENTIFICATION - (ODE 'lNDEX#uR.OUP
I,
NUMERALS
\1
(0·0R\>IN.l1'ES
I
BEING- PISPlAYEO'' 8E\N'7 D\SPLl'(EO ''
I .
~HOSTILE PLANE
NEAR. YOU ! "
(1
Moe.e ro
Fo1t~w'/
.L t
WIND OIRECTl·ON
1--1---)
"RECONNOITER....
"IN TH IS
•••. MILES. 11 ~ DIRECTION •111
CODE "INOEX"'
GROUP ORIENTS
READING DIRE(TION ¾
127
�SIGNALS
APPENDIX I
(
SECTION V
Phonetic Alphabet and International Flags and Pennants
128
�INTERNATIONAL FLAGS AND PENNANTS
NUMERAL PENNANTS
PHONETIC ALPHABET AND ALPHABET FLAGS
Able
Baker
Charlie
[I
•
8
Love
~
Mike
~
Oboe
Easy
Peter
Queen
Fox
George
m
Roger
How
[I
Sugar
Item
[!1
Tare
Jig
King
=
[I
Xray
Yoke
Nan
Dog
William
El
ffi
~
Zebra
a
0
~
2c3
4=
REPEATERS
5
□ ~
~
1
6 ~
1st Repeat
7 .....
2nd Repeat
~
3rd Repeat
Uncle
Victor
9
~
~
D=-
0
CODE
131
�Appendix J
CAMOUFLAGE, DUMMIES AND DECOYS
•
Section
I. Camouflage . . .. ...... . . . ... . .... . • • • • • • • • · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·
II. Dummies and Decoys ................ . ... ........ . . .. • • • • • • • •
SECTION I
CAMOUFLAGE
1. ENEMY CAMOUFLAGE METHODS. a.
Aircraft camouflage:
(1) Dispersed aircraft placed tail-in under
the cover of large trees or groups of tre~s.
(2) Aircraft placed in hedgerow gaps so
that the wings make the hedge appear to run
through without interruption.
(3) Portable nets placed in strips over fuselage, wings, nacelles, and tailplane in such manner that outline of aircraft is broken up and
shadows concealed.
(4) Permanent nets or flat-tops, erected
over revetments or adjacent to natural cover
and appearing to be a portion of the natural
cover itself.
(5) Tree foliage.
b. Antiaircraft artillery camouflage.
(1) Nets draped or placed above the gun
on some type of frame, or over the gun itself.
(2) Sliding roofs, making gun installation
appear to be a small hut. The roof is released
by pulling a pin and the sections fall away so
that there is no interference with field of fire.
c. Airdrome camouflage:
( 1) Painting: Runways and buildings are
painted with neutral tones or with strips, circles
or eccentric patterns. In some cases dummy
roads are painted across the runways.
(2) Texturing: Runways may be treated
with sawdust, wood chips, ground corn stalk,
crushed gravel, slag, etc. Areas adjacent to the
runway may also be coated with runway material so that the runway is lost in the area
pattern.
(3) Concealment or confusion of identity:
Actual concealment of an airdrome is a large
and difficult undertaking. It is possible, how-
Page
131
131
ever, to disg~ise its identity and blend it into
the surrounding countryside. An airdrome has
been disguised by painting with a design to
imitate a plowed field. Another painted to resemble an urban pattern of streets, alleyways,
trees and residences which blended into the
surrounding urban landscape.
d. Coastal defenses. The most prevalent
enemy method of camouflaging coastal defenses
is to bury the installations under heavy concrete
construction, the area over them being grassed
and landscaped to conform to the general terrain of the neighborhood. Where underground
construction is impossible, the- normal procedure
is to erect terraced flat-tops, constructed of a
permanent type of garnished netting, and
erected on a welded frame of heavy metal.
Buildings housing the installation personnel are
often · designed to resemble farm houses typical
of the neighborhood.
e. Strategic installations. factories, railroad
stations, etc., have been camouflaged by heavily
garnished nettings over the entire structure, regardless of its size. One German installation
completely camouflaged in this manner covers .
61 acres. In addition, dummy roads, dummy
houses and dummy trees are usually installed
on top of the · netting superstructure. An extremely common type of camouflage of industrial
targets and railroad yards is disruptive painting.
f. Ships and barges at rest in South and
Southwest Pacific areas are often camouflaged
with foliage or anchored near over-hanging
cliffs.
SECTION II
DUMMIES AND DECOYS
PURPOSE. Distinct from camouflage,
which seeks to render an objective hard to locate, confusing to identify and difficult to retain
1.
131
�APPENDIX J
in view, dummies and decoys offer recognizable
and easily-seen targets which are however, spurious and worthless copies of real targets.
2. DEFINITIONS. a.
Dummy: any false
form, mock-up or model which is an actual
physical duplication of a natural object, structure or installation-such as dummy bush, tree,
road, house, gun, oil tank. Dummies may be
used:
(1) As part of camouflage: dummy trees
and roads on the roof of a railroad station, etc.
(2) As daylight targets, looking like the real
target even in full illumination.
(3) As adjuncts to a night target, the light
of flare bombs or fires revealing them to the
bombardier.
\
b. Decoy: any false target containing a lighting system or fire-site system, and, offering itself
as substitute for some genuine installation, intended to operate against night attack. Since it
operates at night and is intended to attract night
bombers, a decoy need not physically duplicate
the appearance of a real installation; a mere
pattern of fires may serve as decoy. On the other
hand, more complex decoys include dummy
buildings and roads which, illuminated by the
light of the fire-sites or flares, add reality to the
deception.
3. GENERAL. a. Dummies and decoys vary
in type according to the target defended. They
range from simple tactical targets such as aircraft and AA positions, through highly complex,
strategic targets such as refineries, factories, etc.
b. A major factor in the effectiveness of a decoy target is its location. If the real site is near
a prominent landmark, the decoy must be near
a similar landmark: similar bends in a river,
· similar highway intersections, similar valleys
and hills, all can provide ideal conditions for
effective decoy targets; where these are not available, the enemy may elect to create the landmark by various artificial means.
( 1) The nearness of the decoy to the real
target is essential. In a mission of several hundred miles, the maximum probable navigational
error is a few miles to eithe_r side of the target.
This will, therefore, usually represent the practical maximum radius for the location of decoys.
Some are known to be as far as 14 miles from
the real site, but these are exceptions. The practical minimum distance from the defended target ordinarily is two miles; this minimum affords
132
CAMOUFLAGE, DUMMIES AND DECOYS
the real target safety against near-misses aimed
at the decoys.
(2) The nearness of the decoy to sites other
than the target itself must be considered. A
decoy will seldom be close to towns, villages, or
vital communication lines.
C
c. Layout and form
( 1) General decoys do not protect any specific installation; they are seemingly attractive
targets in the vicinity of some vital area. They
often do not include dummy forms, and the
design of their fire-sites may be haphazard or
stereotyped. A ring of general decoys may exist
all about a major industrial or port city.
· (2) Particular decoys are those whose designs imitate some prominent target: steel works,
oil refinery, marshalling yard, bridge, etc. The
placement, size and character of the fires will be
calculated to resemble the effect of bombardment on the real target. Dummy buildings,
roads, tanks, and other installations frequently
will be used to add authenticity. For purposes
of economy and easy maintenance, a decoy may
be only a two-third scale model of its original,
but it must always preserve the relative size and
relation of the component parts.
4. SPECIFIC. a. Aircraft. Dummy aircraft
may be created by placing plan-view silhouettes,
made of canvas, in dummy revetments. More
authentic dummies are made of canvas or burlap stretched over a light wooden or molded
plywood frame; they cast proper shadows, present detail and relief, and are effective against
everything but careful photo interpretation.
Damaged and unserviceable oper.a tional aircraft
are also used as dummies.
b. Antiaircraft.
Antiaircraft positions are
easy to simulate. Nothing more than a hole and
a log is needed: the Japanese, according to certain reports, have been quick to convert bomb
craters into dummy emplacements.
c. Airdromes. The principal features of a
dummy airdrome are its runways. They will not
be concrete, but more likely whitewash or sand
applied over close-cropped grass. They will imitate the original in outline and orientation,
though not always in size. The simplest type of
dummy airdrome will consist of only faked runways. More complex types will include dummy
taxi strips, hangars, administration buildings,
and numerous dummy aircraft and dummy revetments. Decoy Lorenz landing lights and de-
(
(
�APPENDIX J
coy runway flares rnay be added. The enemy has
even pulled a pair of lights down a track several
hundred feet long, imitating landing lights of
taxiing aircraft. When decoy fires are used to
simulate burning oil storage tanks, exploding
arnrnunition dumps, and burning buildings, the
usual technique is as follows: lights in the pattern of an operational airdrorne are displayed;
then, as the bombers approach, the lights are
dirnrned, ostensibly in response to air-raid warning, and finally blacked out just as the bombers
are within range. As soon as the first bombs
fall, decoy fires are ignited, giving the impression that the bombing is accurate and the target
has been hit.
d. Transportation. Since no effective camouflage for bridges is known, durnrny bridges are
sornetirnes built as protection. Marshalling
yards, too, have been protected by dummies.
Roundhouses and turntables are duplicated, and
broad sweeps of paint give the effect of curving
masses of track. Decoy lighting devices add a
CAMOUFLAGE, DUMMIES AND DECOYS
realistic touch by imitating the glow of locomotives.
e. Oil refineries. The rnost easily distinguished features of a refinery are, of course, the
oil tanks. These are easily duplicated in dummy, since only a circular frame and canvas covering are needed. Decoy oil fires are cornrnonly
used at such dummies. Usually they are oil-fed
fires into which water is intermittently injected
with explosive effect, producing vast clouds of
steam and smoke.
f. Industry. Industrial durnrnies will use the
proper combination of durnrny buildings and
durnrny road networks, and add decoy lighting
systems and fire-sites. Fire-sites will vary in size
and type of material burned, according to target
being simulated; i.e., an explosive oil-and-water
fire would be an illogical decoy for a lumber
rnill. Refinements of decoy devices are added to
simulate opening doors, trolley flashes, furnace
glows, etc.
133
�Appendix I(
(
S-2 FIELD EQUIPMENT
•
Besides the equipment listed in Chapter III,
par. 3, the following items are recommended to
be taken into the field. (With the exception
of the pad of overlay paper, all items listed can
be obtained through regular Air Corps channels. The number opposite the item of equipment is the stock number in Class 25B. If any
of these items are to be ordered, both their
class and item numbers must be given.)
RECOMMENDED S-2 EQUIPMENT
CLASS
2 5B ITEMS
1 Pilot's Navigation Kit
1 Pilot's Navigation Kit
insert
1 Plastic Grid Scale
1 Engineer Scale
100 Map Pins, ass' d colors
376200
704800
697600 _
565400-Black
565600-Blue
565800- Brown
566100-Green
567600-Red
1 Seo tch tape dispenser and
tape
286470
849268
449950
1 Map measure
594600
1 Paper punch, 1 hole
1 Flash-O-Lens, illuminated, 370950
complete with cord and
switch
2 Ea. Grease pencils of:
Blue
5574oo
Red
557400·
Yellow
558800
Brown
557000
Green
557600
Black
556600
134
2 Ea. Pencils of:
Red
Blue
Green
1 Ruler, 12 inch, metal
edge
1 Plotter, Weems
1 Triangle 45 degrees
1 Triangle 30 degrees
1 Protractor
1 Box paper clips
1 Pen holder
1 Eraser
555000
554000
554600
648600
57359°
884800
887600
590600
202000
1 Box, ass'd pens (drawing)
1 Box, com passes
1 Divider
1 Box, reinforcements
1 Box, thumb tacks
1 Box, misc. i terns (razor
blade, rubber bands,
etc.)
1 Box, glass headed tacks
1 Pointer
1 Pins
1 Computer (E-6B or D-3)
CLASS
1 Knife
1 Shear
17 B
561300
314200
3 14675
531800
532000
532200
532400
219640
293300
619400
839000
008400
565000
576400
564375
ITEMS
4739° 0
681290
CLASS 10B ITEMS
1 Stereoscope, pocket folding type
PRIVATE PURCHASE
1 Pad of overlay paper 9 x 13
532600
532800
532~().li
�)>
"O
"O
m
z
C
x
"
::!!
m
....
C
m
0
C
w
c.n
"O
~
Many of the tools and materials needed by S-2 in the field can be assembled and carried in a single brief case. The contents of the sample, unofficial
kit shown above are listed in Appendix K.
m
z
-I
�Appendix L
A.RMORED VEHICLES
•
Section
I. Classification
11. Recognition Features ................... .
Ill. Principal Currently Operational Armored Vehicles
IV. Limitations and Vulnerability
. .. . . .......... . ... . ....... .
SECTION I
CLASSIFICATION
•
· 1. GENERAL.
Vehicles used by armored
units may be generally classified into three main
groups according to the type of propelling gear
they have. These types are wheeled, full track
laying, and half-track vehicles.
a. Wheeled: This type comprises scout cars
and armored cars. They employ the conventional . automotive chassis. The principal us~
for this type of vehicle is for reconnaissance
purposes. Scout cars normally do not have
turret protection.
b. Full track laying: All vehicles which are
supported and propelled entirely by tracks fall
into this category. Tanks form the main portion of this group. Tanks are further classified
according to their weight as follows:
( 1) Tankettes, weighing less than 5 tons
(2) Light tanks, weighing from 5 to 15 tons
(3) Medium tanks, weighing from 15 to
35 tons
(4) Heavy tanks, weighing over 35 tons
c. Half-track: This type of vehicle is a combination of the full track laying and the wheeled
types. It is usually driven by a short track on
the rear, and is steered by conventional front
wheels. Personnel and weapon carriers, and
self-propelled antiaircraft mounts fall into this
category.
SECTION 11
RECOGNITION FEATURES
Ability to recognize armored vehicles instantly is nece,sary for all tactical aircrew per1.
136
Page
136
136
137
138
sonnel, especially those cooperating with ground
forces. Accurate recognition not only prevents
interference with, or possible destruction of,
friendly armored forces, but may save the lives
and equipment . of air crews. Most · modern
armored vehicl~s, · both friend and foe, possess
heavy anti-aircraft defense capable of disabling
or downing attacking aircraft. Thus, the uncertain pilot, who swoops low to "investigate"
takes grave chances.
2. High speed and altitude from which air
personnel view armored vehicles make recognition difficult. Further difficulties are imposed
by dust, camouflage, shifting background, mud
and vegetation which hide portions of the vehicle or deceive the viewer. These factors plus
the high angle of approach make it necessarv to
teach aircrew recognition through these feat~res
seen along the upper half and front of armored
vehicles. Appearance of vehicles from above
must be emphasized.
3. There may be variations in equipment.
For example: U. S. Carrier, Personnel, Halftrack M3, may _have a 57mm, 75mm, or 105mm
gun mounted on the chassis and be used as a
tank destroyer, or it may have an 81mm mortar
mounted in the rear or carry a number of
machine guns and be used as a close su ppo:rt
weapon to dismounted troops. However, the
general appearance is not destroyed so far as
recognition principles are concerned.
4. In recognition of tanks the following
features must be considered:
a. Turret. The turret is a dome-shaped or
box-shaped structure on the top of the vehicle.
(
�ARMORED VEHICLES
APPENDIX L
It usually carries the main armament. Distinguishing features of the turret are:
(1) Position on the hull-well forward, the
center, near the rear, etc.
(2) Cupola-a small turret-like projection
on top of the turret. (Prominent cupolas are
characteristic of German light and medium
tanks:)
(3) Shape-cylindrical, pyramidal, domeshaped, etc.
b. Hull. The bow, or forward portion, of
the hull is most important. Characteristics to
be looked for in the hull are:
( 1) Box shaped
(2) Streamlined
(3) Low or high
(4) Overhanging
(5) Slope-sided
TANK RECOGNITION FEATURES
c. Armament. Varies from machine guns to
large cannons. In turret vehicles the heaviest
armament is normally in the turret.
( 1) Long barrel (as German PzKw VI
88mm gun).
(2) Short barrel (as U. S. Carriage, Motor,
Howitzer, 75mm MS).
(3) Medium barrel (as U. S. Medium Tank,
M4, 75mm gun).
(4) Muzzle brake.
(5) Gun mantlet.
d. Traction. In general, traction aids recognition only while the vehicles are halted as in
dispersal or when refueling or being repaired.
The following are identifying features:
(1) "\i\1heeled vehicles (8 wheel German
Armored Car).
(2) Part Track vehicles (U. S. Carrier, Personnel, Half-Track M3).
(3) Full track vehicles (German PzKw
?vlark III).
SECTION Ill
TURRET
PRINCIPAL CURRENTLY OPERATIONAL
ARMORED VEHICLES
(
1. The list below include the important
armored vehicles of various combatant nations
to be included in recognition instruction. The
most important vehicles are indicated by an
asterisk (*). The importance of each vehicle
may change with time and area of combat.
HuLL
UNITED STATES VEHICLES
ARMAMENT~
TRACTION
J
American, MSA 1, (Light)
~
Scout car, M-3A1
*Light armored car, M-8
Armored utility car,, M-20
*Half-track car, M-3 (M-2, M-4, M-5, M-9A1)
Multiple gun motor carriage, M-15
Multiple gun motor carriage, M-16 (M-13,
M-14, M-17)
*Light Tank, M-5A1 (M-5)
Light tank, T-gE 1
Medium tank, M-3 (M-3A1, M-3A2, M-3A3,
M-3A4, M-3A5)
*Medium tank, M-4 (M-4A2, M-4A3, M-4A4)
Medium tank, M-4A1
*75-mm howitzer motor carriage, M-8
* 105-mm howitzer motor carriage, M-7
3-Inch gun motor carriage, M-10 (M-10A1)
76mm gun motor carriage, T-70
155mm gun motor carriage, M-12
137
�ARMORED VEHICLES
APPENDIX L
BRITISH VEHICLES
Humber armored car
Daimler armored car
A. E. C. armored car
Armored car, T-1 7 E 1
0 tter armored car
Lynx armored car
Universal carrier
*Cromwell tank
*Churchill infantry tank
SP 25 PDR. (Sexton)
RUSSIAN VEHICLES
Armored carrier and prime mover (STZ)
Light tanks (T-40, T-50, T-60, T-70)
Valentine tank
Medium tank, T-34
Heavy tank, KV-I
Heavy tank, KV-II
GERMAN VEHICLES
4-wheeled armored car, SD KFZ 222 SD
KFZ 221)
6-wheeled armored car
*8-wheeled a-r mored car
Armored half-track vehicles
Half-track vehicles
* PzK w III tank
*PzKw IV tank
PzKw V tank (panther)
*PzKw VI tank (Tiger)
76mm or 75mm SP gun (on PzKw 38 tank
chassis)
75mm SP gun (on PzKw III tank chassis)
( )
ITALIAN VEHICLES
4-wheeled armored car
. L-3 tank
L-6 tank
M-14 tank
75mm SP gun (on M-14 tank chassis)
JAPANESE VEHICLES
Light armored car, 2597
small tank)
Light tank, 2595
Medium tank, 2597
(actually a very
SECTION IV
LIMITATIONS AND VULNERABILITY
The following diagrammatic charts illustrate the parts of an armored vehicle that can
be penetrated or severely damaged by weapon
fire. The limitations of the vehicles are shown
at the bottom of the chart and can, in a broad
sense, be interpreted as those of similar vehicles,
Allied or Axis. Four charts are appended:
a. Medium tank.
b. Armored car.
c. Light tank.
d. Tankette.
1.
(
(
138
�APPENDIX L
ARMORED VEHICLES
(
i •
67H:
HS::IGHT:
e•e--
w,orH:
7~3•f
Figure 16. Medium tank.
139
�ARMORED VEHICLES
APPENDIX L
(
Figure 17. Armored car.
140
�ARMQREt> Vl;Hl<;;LE$
APPENDlX L
(
Figure 18. Light tank.
141
�ARMORED VEHICLES
APP~NPIX L
(
(
Figure 19. Tankette.
142
.
�Appendix M
(
CONVERSION TABLES
•
TABLE I.
Feet
Inches
1
inch =
l
foot
=
1
yard =
1
rod =
1
mile
1
cent. =
.3937
1
meter =
39.37
143
143
143
144
144
144
I
2
3
4
5
6
UNITS OF L ENGTH
Yards
12
Page
Ta ble
Units of Length .. ... . ... . .. . . . ... . .... . . . .... . ....... .
Units of Weight . .. . .. .. ....... . . . .... .. . .. ......... . . .. . . .
C hinese and Japanese Units of Length and Weight . ......... . . .
Units of Area . . .. .. ............... . ..... . . .. . . . . . ........ .
Units of Volume . ..... .. . ... .... . . . .. . .... .. .... . .. . .. . . . . .
Measures-Miscellaneous . . ... ...... . ..... . . .. ..... .. . . . ... . . .
Rods
Miles
.0277
.005
.000016
.3333
.0606
.000189
Centimeters
2.54
Meters
.0254
.1818
3
198
5.5
=
1760
.0109
320
16o,934.72
.00199
.000006
.1988
.000621
1609.347
.01
100
1 meter = 1000 millimeters
1 kilometer = 1000 meters
TABLE II.
Avoirdupois
Ounces
1 avoir. ounce
UNITS OF WEIGHT
Avoirdupois
Pounds
.0625
1 avoir. pound
16
1 short ton =
32,000
2000
1 long ton
35,84o
2240
1 kilogram
1 metric ton =
Short Tons
Long Tons
Kilograms
Metric
Tons
.000031
.0000279
.028
.000028
.0005
.000446
.4536
.0004536
.8928
1.12
35.27
2.2046
.001.1
.000984
35,273.96
2204.6
1.1023
.9842
907.18
.90718
1016.047
1.016
.001
1000
1 kilogram= 1000 grams
1 quintal = 100 kilograms
TABLE III.
CHINESE AND JAPANESE UNITS OF LENGTH AND WEIGHT
Units of Ler,.gth
Units of Weight
China
Chang = 11 ft. g in.
Ch'ih = 14.1 inches
Kung = 78.96 inches
T'sun = 1.41 inches
Tu = 100.142 miles
Chin or catty = 1-1/3 lb.
Kin = .601 kilogram, 1.325 lb.
Japan
Shaku = 10/ 33 meter = .994 ft.
Cho
360 shaku = 109 meters
Ken = 5.965 ft., 1.81 meters
H iyak-kin = 132-1/2 lb.
Kin = .601 kilogram, 1.325 lb.
Kwan = 8.281 lb. or
3.75 kilograms
143
�CONVERSION TABLES
APPENDIX M
TABLE IV.
UNITS OF AREA
(
Sq. in.
1
sq. in.
l
sq. ft.
1
sq. yd.
1
sq. mi.
Sq. yds.
.006944
.000772
.0000000
002491
.000645
.000000065
.111111
.000000
o3587
.0929
.00000929
144
1296
1 sq. meter
1 hectare
27,878,400
3,097,600
1549.9969
10.76387
1.195985
107,638.7
11 ,959.85
TABLE V.
1 cubic inch
.0005787
1 cubic foot
1728
1 cubic yard
46,656
1 cubic meter
61,023.38
TABLE VI.
=
144
=
=
=
.836
.0000836
2,589,998
258.9998
.0001
.0000003861
10,000
.003861
Cubic meters
Cubic yd.
.00002143
.000016387
.o37o37
.028317
27
35-3 1445
.7645594
1.30794
MEASURES-MISCELLANEOUS
Circle, area of = 1rr2 (r = radius)
Circle, perimeter of
2d (r
radius)
Gallon (British Imperial)
1.20091 gallons
4.54596 liters
Gallon (US)
3.78543 liters
Knot
1 nautical mile per hour
=
Sq. meters
UNITS OF VOLUME
Cubic ft.
Cubic in.
=
.00000032
9
4,014,489,600
15,499,969
Sq. mi.
Hectares
Sq. ft.
(US)
=
=
Light, speed of
186,000 miles per second
1.1516 statute miles
6080.204 feet
Mile, nautical
Pi = 22/7 = 3.1416
Sound, speed of (in air at o0 C)
1088 feet per second
(increases 2 feet per second with rise in temperature
of 1° C).
=
=
(
�APPENDIX N-Comparative Ranks and Grades
The foilow1ng tabies of Ailied. and enemy ranks and grades are comparative only.
only approximately equivalent.
No attempt at literal translation has been made and the ranks and grades are
United States
ARMY
ARMY
Commissioned Ranks
General of the Armies
General
Lieutenant General
Major General
Admiral
Vice Admiral
Rear Admiral
Field Marshal
General
Lieutenant General
Major General
Brigadier General
Colonel
Lieutenant Colonel
Major
Captain
First Lieutenant
Second Lieutenant
Commodore
Captain
Commander
Lieutenant Commander
Lieutenant
Lieutenant (_j.g.)
Ensign
Brigadier
Colonel
Lieutenant Colonel
Major
Captain
Lieutenant
Second Lieutenant
Admiral of the Fleet
Admiral
Vice Admiral
Rear Admiral
Commodore, First Class
Commodore, Second Class
Captain
Commander
Lieutenant Commander
Lieutenant
Sub-Lieutenant
Acting Sub-Lieutenant
Cadet
Midshipman
Officer Aspirants
Cadet
Officer Candidate
Midshipman
First Sergeant
Technical Sergeant
Staff Sergeant
Sergeant
Corporal
...
.a=.,,
Cli
Private First Class
Private
--
First Class Petty Officer
Second Class Petty Officer
Third Class Petty Officer
First Class Seaman
Second Class Seaman
Apprentice Seaman
Cadet
n
0
Warrant Officer
w.o.
Enlisted Grades
Chief Petty Officer
Air Commodore
Group Captain
Wing Commander
Squadron Leader
Flight Lieutenant
Flying Officer
Pilot Officer
Warrant Officer Grades
Chief Warrant Officer
Warrant Officer
Staff Sergeant Major,
Class 1
Master Sergeant
Marshal of the . RAF
Air Chief Marshal
Air Marshal
Air Vice Marshal
Officer Aspirants
Warrant Officer Grades
Chief Warrant Officer
Warrant Officer (.i.g.)
RAF
NAVY
Commissioned Ranks
z
><
z
C
Great Britain
NAVY
.,,.,,)>
m
.,,~
Warrant Officer
:,:ii:,
~
Enlisted Grades
<
m
Regimental Sergeant Major,
W.O. Class 1
Company Sergeant Major,
W.O. Class 2
Warrant Officer, Class 3
Staff Sergeant
Sergeant
Corporal
Chief Petty Officer
Petty Officer
Leading Seaman
Flight Sergeant
Sergeant
Corporal
Lance Corporal
Seaman 1st Class
Leading Aircraftsman
Aircraftsman, 1st Class
Aircraftsman, 1st or 2nd Class
Private
)>
:,:ii:,
)>
z
"
(I)
Ordinary Seaman
)>
z
C
G)
:,:ii:,
)>
C
m
(I)
�)>
ARMY
-a
-a
Russia
United States
NAVY
ARMY
Commissioned Ranks
Commissioned Ranks
General of the Armies
General
Lieutenant General
Major General
Brigadier General
Colonel
Lieutenant Colonel
Major
Captain
Admiral
Vice Admiral
Rear Admiral
Commodore
Captain
Commander
Lieutenant Commander
Lieutenant
First Lieutenant
Second Lieutenant
Lieutenant (i.g.)
Ensign
m
NAVY
Marshal
General Armii
General Polkovnik
General Lei tenant
General Mayor
Polkovnik
Podpolkovnik
Mayor
Kapitan
Starshi Leitenant
Lei tenant
Admiral Flota
Admiral
Vi tse Admiral
Contr Admiral
Capitan Pervago Banga
Capitan Vtorova Banga
Capitan Tretivo Banga
Capitan Leitenant
Starshii Leitenant
z
C
x
z
Lei tenant
Mladshii Leitenant
Mladshii Leitenant
Officer Aspirants
Midshipman
Cadet
Officer Candidate
Officer Aspirants
Student, Military Schools
Kadet
Warrant Officer Grades
Warrant Officer Grades
Chief Warrant Officer
Warrant Officer
Chief Warrant Officer
Warrant Officer (j.g.)
0
~
·Enlisted Grades
Chief Petty Officer
Master Sergeant
First Sergeant
Technical Sergeant
Staff Sergeant
Sergeant
Corporal
Private First Class
Private
--
Enlisted Grades
Starshina
Starshii Serjant
First Class Petty Officer
--
Second Class Petty Officer
Third Class Petty Officer
First Class Seaman
Second Class Seaman
Apprentice Seaman
n
Serjant
Mladshii Serjant
Michman
Glavni Starshina
Starshina 1 Statyi
Starshina 2 Statyi
Starshii Krasnoflotets
Efreitor
Krasnoarmeyetz
-a
)>
;a
~
<
m
;a
)>
z
"
~
Krasnoflotets
)>
z
C
C)
;a
l>
C
m
VI
�)>
United States
ARMY
NAVY
Admiral
Vice Admiral
Rear Admiral
Commodore
Captain
Commander
Lieutenant Commander
Lieutenant
Lieutenant (j.g.)
Ensign
General £el dmarschall
Generaloberst
General der lnfanterie (etc.)
Generalleutnant
Generalmajor
Oberst
Oberstleutnant
Major
Hauptmann
O~er]eutnant
Leutnant
Grossadmiral
General admiral
Admiral
Vizeadmiral
Konteradmiral
Kapitan zur See
Fregattenkapitan
Korvettenkapitan
Kapitanleutnant
Oberleutnant zur See
Leutnant zur See
z
C
x
Commissioned Ranks
Officer Aspirants
Cadet
Officer Candidate
m
AIR FORCE
NAVY
ARMY
Commissioned Ranks
General of the Armies
General
Lieu tenant General
Major General
Brigadier General
Colonel
Lieutenant Colonel
Major
Captain
First Lieutenant
Second Lieutenant
-c,
-c,
Germany
Reichsmarschall
General £el dmarschall
Generaloberst
General der Flieger (etc.)
Generalleutnant
General major
Oberst
Oberstleutnant
\fajor
Hauptmann
Oberleutnant
Leutnant
z
Officer Aspirants
Oberfahnrich
Oberfahnrich zur See
Oberfahnrich
Fahnrich
Fahnrich · zur See
Fahnrich
Midshipman
Warrant Officer Grades
Chief Warrant Officer
Warrant Officer (j.g.)
Warrant Officer Grades
Chief Warrant Officer
Warrant Officer
n
Stabsfe] dwebel
Enlisted Grades
Sta hso herfel d we bel
Stahsfeldwehe]
0
~
-c,
Enlisted Grades
)>
,ell
Master Sergeant
First Sergeant
Technical Sergeant
Staff Sergeant
Sergeant
Chief Petty Officer
First Class Petty Officer
Second Class Petty Officer
Corporal
Third Class Petty Officer
First Class Seaman
Private First Class
Private
Second Class Seaman
Apprentice Seaman
Hauptfeldwebel
Oberfeldwebel
Feldwebel
U nterfeldwebel
Unteroffizier
Stabsgefreiter
0 bergefrei ter
Oherfeldwebe]
Stahsfeldwehel
Feldwehel
Ohermaat
Maat
Hauptgefreiter
0 hergefrei ter
Hauptfeldwebel
Oherfeldwebel
Feldwebe]
lJnterfeldwebel
Unteroffizier
Hauptgefreiter
0 hergefrei ter
Gefreiter
0 hergrenadier
Grenadier
Gefreiter
Gefreiter
\fatrose
Flieger
)>
---t
<
m
,ell
)>
z:;:ii:::
(,i'
)>
z
C
Gl
,ell
)>
C
m
V,
�- -
Japan
United States
NAVY
ARMY
General of the Armies
General
Lieutenant General
Major General
Brigadier General
Colonel
Lieutenant Colonel
Major
Captain
First Lieutenant
Second Lieutenant
Admiral
Vice Admiral
Rear Admiral
Commodore
Captain
Commander
Lieutenant Commander
Lieutenant
Lieutenant (i.g.)
Ensign
x
z
Gensui
Taisho
Chusho
Shosho
'
Taisa
Chusa
Shosa
Taii
Chui
Shoi
Taisa
Chusa
Shosa
Taii
Chui
Shoi
Officer Aspirants
Midshipman
Cadet
Officer Candidate
Warrant Officer Grades
Warrant Officer Grades
-Chief -Warrant Officer
Warrant Officer (j.g.)
Chief Warrant Officer
Warrant Officer
. ......
Hiko Socho
Juni
Chief Petty Officer
First Class Petty Officer
n
Enlisted Grades
Enlisted Grades
Private First Class
Private
C
Commissioned Ranks
Gensui
Taisho
Chusho
Shosho
Officer Aspirants
Ma-s ter Sergeant
First Sergeant
Technical Sergeant
Staff Sergeant
Sergeant
Corporal
z
NAVY
ARMY
Commissioned Ranks
~.,
l>
-a
-a
m
--
Hiko Socho
Hiko Gunso
0
Joto Heiso
~
-a
l>
:::a
l>
ltto Hiko Heiso
I
Second Class Petty Officer
Third Class Petty Officer
First Class Seaman
Second Class Seaman
A pp ren tice Seaman
Hiko
Hiko
Hiko
Hiko
Hiko
Gocho
Heicho
Joto Hei
Itto Hei
Nito Hei
Nito Hiko Heiso
Santo Hiko Heiso
-I
<
m
:::a
Hiko Joto Hei
Nito Hiko Hei
Santo Hiko Hei
l>
z
"
en
l>
z
C
Q
:::a
l>
C
m
en
\
'
�)>
ARMY
NAVY
Admiral
Vice Admiral
Rear Admiral
Commodore
Captain
Commander
Lieutenant Commander
Lieutenant
Lieutenant (j.g.)
Ensign
Gommissioned Ranks
Marechal de France
General d'Armee
General de corps d'armee
General de division
General de brigade
Colonel
Lieutenant Colonel
Commandant
Capitaine
Lieutenant
Sous-Lieu tenant
Officer Aspirants
Cadet
Officer Candidate
Midshipman
Aspirant
Eleve Officier
First Class Petty Officer
Second Class Petty Officer
Corporal
Private First Class
Private
.
Third Class Petty Officer
First Class Seaman
Second Class Seaman
A pp rentice Seaman
z
Amiral de la Flottc
Vice-amiral
Con tre-amiral
Capitaine de vaisseau
Capitaine de fregate
Capitaine de corvette
Lieutenant de vaisseau
Enseigne de vaisseau de 1ere dasse
Enseigne de vaisseau de 2eme dasse
Aspirant de marine
Eleve Officier
Maitre Principal
Enlisted Grades
Chief Petty Officer
x
Warrant Officer Grades
Chief Warrant Officer
Warrant Officer
Master Sergeant
First Sergeant
Technical Sergeant
Staff Sergeant
Sergeant
z
C
Officer Aspirants
Warrant Officer Grades
Chief Warrant Officer
Warrant Officer (j.g.)
m
NAVY
ARMY
Commissioned Ranks
General of the Armies
General
Lieu tenant General
Major General
Brigadier General
Colonel
Lieutenant Colonel
Major
Captain
First Lieutenant
Second Lieutenant
-a
-a
France
United States
Enlisted Grades
Adjudant-chef
Adjudant
Sergent-chef
Sergent de carriere
Sergent
Caporal-chef
Caporal
Soldat de 1e:i:e dasse
Soldat Prive
Premier Maitre
Second Maitre
Matelot Brevete (1ere dasse)
Matelot Brevete (2eme classe)
Matelot Brevete (3 eme classe)
)>
z
C
~
:::a
)>
C
m
en
�-
l>
c.n
ARMY ·
ARMY
NAVY
General of the Armies
General
Admiral
Maresciallo d'Italia
Generale d'armata
Generale designato d'armata
Lieutenant General
Major General
Brigadier General
Colonel
Lieutenant Colonel
Major
Captain
First Lieutenant
Second Lieutenant
Vice Admiral
Rear Admiral
Commodore
Captain
Commander
Lieutenant Commander
Lieutenant
Lieutenant (j.g.)
Ensign
Generale di corpo d'armata
Generale di divisione
Generale di brigata
Colonnello
Tenente Colonnello
Maggiore
Capitano
Tenente
Sotto Tencnte
Grande Aminiraglio
Ammiraglio d'armata
Ammiraglio designato
d'armata
Ammiraglio di squadra
Ammiraglio di divisione
Con trammiraglio
Capitano di vascello
Capitano di fregata
Capitano di corvetta
Tenente di vascello
Sotto tenente di vascello
Guardiamarina
Aspirante
z
C
><
Maresciallo dell 'aria
Generale di armata aerea
z
Generale di squadra aerea
Generale di divisione aerea
Generale di brigata aerea
Colonnello
Tenente Colonnello
Maggiore
Capitano
Tenente
Sotto Tenente
Aspirante
Midshipman
Cadet
Officer Candidate
Warrant Officer Grades
Chief Warrant Officer
Warrant Officer (j.g.)
Chief Warrant Officer
Warrant Officer
Warrant Officer Grades
Maresciallo maggiore
Maresciallo capo
Maresciallo ordinario
Chief Petty Officer
1
Sergente maggiore
First Class Petty Officer
Second Class Petty Officer
Third Class Petty Officer
First Class Seaman
Second Class Seaman
A pp rcntice Seaman
Maresciallo di ia classe
Maresciallo di 2a classe
Maresciallo di 3a classe
Enlisted Grades
Enlis'.-ed Grades
Private First Class
Private
AIR FORCE
Officer Aspirants
Officer Aspirants
Corporal
m
NAVY
Commissioned Ranks
Commissioned Ranks
Master Sergeant
First Sergeant
Technical Sergeant
Staff Sergeant
Sergeant
-0
-0
Italy
United States
0
Capo di 1a classe
Sergente maggiore
Capo di 2a classe
Sergente
Caporale maggiore
Caporale
Soldato Scelto
Soldato
Capo di 3a classe
Secondo capo
Sergente
Sotto capo
Funzionante Sotto capo
Comune di 1a classe
Comune di 2a classe
n
0
~
-0
l>
::a
l>
....
<
m
Sergente
::a
l>
Primo Aviere
Aviere Scelto
"l>
z
~
z
C
Aviere
G)
::a
l>
C
m
~
�)>
United States
China
NAVY
ARMY
ARMY-NAVY-AIR
Commissioned Ranks
General of the Armies
General
Lieutenant General
Major General
Brigadier General
Colonel
Lieutenant Colonel
Major
Captain
First Lieutenant
Second Lieutenant
Commissioned Ranks
Midshipman
Private First Class
Private
><
Shang-hsiao
Chung-hsiao
Shao-hsiao
Shang-wei
Chung-wei
Shao-wei
Officer Aspirants
Tsunhsue hsue-sheng
Chief Warrant Officer
·w arrant Officer
Warrant Officer Grades
Tsuin-tso
Enlisted Grades
Master Sergeant
First Sergeant
Technical Sergeant
Staff Sergeant
Sergeant
Corporal
z
C
Shang-chiang
Chung-chiang
Shao-chiang
Warrant Officer Grades
Chief Warrant Officer
Warrant Officer (i.g.)
m
z
Admiral
Vice Admiral
Rear Admiral
Commodore
Captain
Commander
Lieu tenant Commander
Lieutenant
Lieutenant (i.g.)
Ensign
Officer Aspirants
Cadet
Officer Candidate
""O
""O
Enlisted Grades
n
0
Chief Petty Officer
~
""O
)>
First Class Petty Officer
Second Class Petty Officer
Third Class Petty Officer
First Class Seaman
Second Class Seaman
Apprentice Seaman
Shang-shih
Chung-shih
Hsia-shih
Sang-teng-ping
Ehr-teng-pingI teng-ping
Ping
:-a
)>
-I
<
m
:-a
)>
z
"
~
)>
z
C
Q
-UI
:-a
)>
C
m
~
�United States
ARMY
Netherlands
ARMY
NAVY
Commissioned Ranks
General of the Armies
General
Lieutenant General
Major General
Brig~dier General
Colonel
Lieutenant Colonel
Majot .
Captain
First Lieutenant
Secon.d Lieutenant
Generaal
Lui tenant-Generaal
Generaal-Majoor
Admiraal
Luitenant Admiraal
Vice Admiraal
Kolonel
Overste
Majoor
Kapitein
Eerste Luitenant
Tweede Lui tenant
Kapitein ter Zee
Kapitein-Luitenant ter Zee
Luitenant ter Zee der lo Klas
Lui tenant ter Zee der 2 ° Klas
Chief Warrant Officer
Warrant Officer
Lui tenant ter Zee der 3 ° Klas
Adelborst
Warrant Officer Grades
Vaandrig
Onrlerluitenant
n
,,3:
Enlisted Grades
Enlisted Grades
Private First Class
Pri\';ite
x
Officer Aspirants
Kadet
Warrant Officer Grades
Master Sergeant
First Sergeant
Technical Sergeant
Staff Sergeant
Sergeant
Corporal
z
C
z
Admiral
Vice Admiral
Rear Admiral
Commodore
Captain
Commander
Lieutenant Commander
Lieutenant
Lieutenant (j.g.)
Ensign
Midshipman
Chief Warrant Officer
Warrant Officer (i.g.)
NAVY
Commissioned Ranks
Officer Aspirants
Cadet
Officer Candidate
,,,,l>
m
0
Chief Petty Officer
l>
:F irst Class Petty Officer
Second Class Petty Officer
Third Class Petty Officer
First Class Seaman
Second Class Seaman
Apprentice Seaman
:=a
Bootsman
Kwartermeester
Serjeant
Koporaal
Soldaat
Soldaat
10
Klas
Matroos
Matroos
1
° Klas
~
<
m
,0
l>
z
"l>
~
z
C
Q
,0
l>
C
m
Cl'
�l>
United States
ARMY
NAVY
Admiral
Vice Admiral
Rear Admiral
Commodore
Captain
Commander
Lieutenant Commander
Lieutenant
Lieutenant (j.g.)
Ensign
Commissioned Ranks
Marszalek
General
General Broni
General Dywizji
General Brygady
Pulkownik
Podpulkownik
Major
Kapitan
Porucznik
Podporucznik
Officer Aspirants
Cadet
Officer Candidate
Midshipman
Chief Warrant Officer
Warrant Officer
Private First Class
Private
Chief Petty Officer
z
Admiral
Wice Admiral
Kontr Admiral
Komandor
Komandor Porucznik
Komandor Podporucznik
Kapitan
Porucznik
Podporucznik
Warrant Officer Grades
Chorazy
Chorazy Margnakki
Enlisted Grades
Starszy Sierzant
First Class Petty Officer
Second Class Petty Officer
Third Class Petty Officer
First Class Seaman
Second Class Seaman
Apprentice Seaman
x
Aspirant
Enlisted Grades
Master Sergeant
First Sergeant
Technical Sergeant
Staff Sergeant
Sergeant
Corporal
z
C
Officer Aspirants
Warrant Officer Grades
Chief Warrant Officer
Warrant Officer (j.g.)
NAVY
ARMY
Commissioned Ranks
General of the Armies
General
Lieutenant General
Major General
Brigadier General
Colonel
Lieutenant Colonel
Major
Captain
First Lieutenant
Second Lieutenant
-a
-a
m
Poland
Sierzant
Plutonowy
Kapral
Starszy Szeregowiec
Szeregowiec
Starszy Bosman
n
0
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-a
l>
Bosman
Bosman Mat
Mat
"'~
Starszy Marynarz
Marynarz
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�Appendix 0
COMPLETED STAFF WORI(
•
The following creed should be studied by S-2
.and every other staff officer:
1.
"Completed Staff Work" is the study of
.a problem and presentation of a solution, by
a staff officer, in such form that all that remains to be done on the part of the head of
the staff division, or the commander, is to indicate his approval or disapproval of the completed action. The words "completed. action"
are emphasized because the more difficult the
problem is, the more the tendency is to present ·
the problem to the chief in piecemeal fashion.
It is your duty as a staff officer to work out the
details. You should not consult your chief in
the determination of these details, no matter
how perplexing they may be. You may and
should consult other staff officers. The product,
whether it involves the pronouncement of a
new policy or affects an established one, should,
when presented to the chief for approval or
disapproval, be worked out in finished form.
2. The impulse which often comes to the
inexperienced staff officer to ask the chief what
to do, recurs more often when the problem is
•difficul t. It is accompanied by a feeling of
mental frustration. It is so easy to ask the chief
what to do, and it appears so easy for him to
answer. Resist that impulse. You will succumb to it only if you do not know your job.
It is your job to advise your chief what he
ought to do. He needs answers, not questions.
Your job is to study, write, restudy and rewrite
until you have evolved a single proposed action-the best of all you have considered. Your
chief merely approves or disapproves.
3. Do not worry your chief with long explanations and memoranda. Writing a mem-
154
orandum to your chief does not constitute completed staff work, but writing a memorandum
for your chief to send to someone else does.
Your views should be placed before him in
finished form so that he can make them his
views simply by signing his name. In most instances, completed staff work results in a single
document prepared for the signature of the
chief, without accompanying comment. If the
proper result is reached, the chief will usually
recognize it at once. If he wants comment or
explanation, he will ask for it.
4. ·The theory of completed staff work does
not preclude a "rough draft" but the rough
draft must not be a half-baked idea. It must
be complete in every respect except that it
lacks the requisite number of copies and need
not be neat. But a rough draft must not be
an excuse for shifting · to the chief the burden
of formulating the action.
5. The "completed staff work" theory may
result in more work for the staff officer, but it
results in more freedom for the chief. This
is as it should be. Further, it accomplishes
two things:
a. The chief 1s protected from half-baked
ideas, voluminous memoranda and immature
oral presentations.
b. The staff officer who has a real idea to sell
is enabled more readily to find a market.
6. When you have finished your "completed
staff work" the final test is this: If you were
the chief would you be willing to sign the
paper you have prepared, and stake your professional reputation on its being right? If the
answer is in the negative, take it back and work
it over, because it is not yet "completed staff
work."
(
�BIBLIOGRAPHY
(
Desirable manuals and publications for the libraries of Intelligence Sections ?-re listed below. The
Intelligence Section of each echelon of command should have the entire library while in the United
States. In a Theater of Operations the different echelons should have the minimum of those manuals and publications checked in the right hand columm.
CONTINENTAL UNITED STATES
THEATER OF OPERATIONS
"O
C
C
0
i,...
"O
ro
;:::l
v'
!:J)
FM
Tactics and Technique of Air Attack
1-15
Tactics and Technique of Air Fighting
1-20
Tactics and Technique of Air Reconnaissance, etc.
1-2 5
Air Defense
Air Navigation
1-30
1 -35
Aerial Photography
1 -45
Signal Communications
1 -75
Combat Orders
4-100 Organization and Tactics of Antiaircraft Artillery
4-102
Employment of AA Automatic Weapons
4- 10 3 Employment of Antiaircraft Artillery with Airborne
Forces
4- 10 4 Employment of Antiaircraft Guns
4-106 Employment of Antiaircraft Searchlights and the
AAAIS
4-110
Gunnery
4-121
Fire Control, Guns
1
4- 45 Radio Set S.C.R. 268, Operation of Materiel and Employment of P~rsonnel
Fire Control, Automatic Weapons
Operation of Materiel and Employment of Personnel.
Searchlight Uni ts
4-181
Employment of Barrage Balloons
Camouflage
5-20
Military Training
21-5
21-6
List of Publications for Training
21-7
Training Films and Film Strips
21-25
Elementary Map and Aerial Photograph Reading
21 -26
Advanced Map and Aerial Photograph Reading
21-30
Conventional Signs, Military Symbols and Abbreviations
Sketching
21-35
21-40
Defense Against Chemical Attack
Protective Measures, Individuals and Small Units
21-45
2 4-5
Signal Communications
25-10
Motor Transport .
1-10
0..
;:j
0
i,...
0
ro
bl)
C
~
s
s0
u
--- --------X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
155
�BIBLIOGRAPHY
CONTINENT AL UNITED ST ATES
THEATER OF OPERATIONS
(
30-20
30-21
30-22
30-25
30-26
30-50
100-20
101-5
101-10
TM
1-205
1-220
1-230
1-900
5-240
5-246
5-255
5-266
5-267
TM-E 30-451
TM
30-480
AR 380-5
MR
2-1
3-1
ONI 200-A
201
202
203
204
206
208
156
Interior Guard Duty
Combat Intelligence
Examination of Enemy Personnel, Repatriates, Documents and Materiel
Military Maps
Role of Aerial Photography
Foreign Conventional Signs and Symbols
Counterintelligence
Regulations for Correspondents Accompanying U. S.
Army Forces in the Field
Regulations for Technical Observers and Service Specialists Accompanying U.S. Army Forces in the Field
Censorship (tentative)
Army-Navy Recognition Pictorial Manual (Aircraft)
Army-Navy Recognition Pictorial Manual (Armored
Vehicles-being published)
Army-Navy Recognition Pictorial Manual (Naval
Vessels)
Field Service Regulations-Command and Employment of Air Power
The Staff and Combat Orders
Organization, Technical and Logistical Data
Air Navigation
Aerial Photography
Weather Manual for Pilots
Mathematics for Pilot Trainees
Aerial Phototopography
Interpretation of Aerial Photographs
Aviation Engineers
Camouflage
Camouflage (Also supplements)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Safeguarding Military Information
Military Intelligence
Organization and Training
Aerial Views of U. S. Naval Vessels
British Naval Vessels
Italian Naval Vessels
French Naval Vessels
German Na val Vessels '
Minor European Navies
Merchant Ship Recognition
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Handoook on German Army
Handbook on Japanese Military Forces
vised)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
(Being re-
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
(
�BIBLIOGRAPHY
CONTINENTAL UNITED STATES
(
THEATER
...=
"'O
OF
OPERATIONS
"'O
0
~
;:::l
Cr'
__
Cf)_
208-J
209
220-A
220-B
220-M
234
41-42
54R
(
Japanese Merchant Ships
Merchant Vessels of all Nations
Submarines
United Nations Submarines
Axis Submarine Manual
German Military Aircraft
Japanese Naval Vessels
U. S. Naval Ships and Aircraft
TM 30 Series: Phrase Books and Military Dictionaries
The Air Force in Theaters of Operations, Organization and Function
Handbook for Combat Air Intelligence Officers
Fighter Intelligence Officer's Guide
Photo Intelligence Reports
Air Route Manuals
Airport Directories
Air Pilot Manuals
Airport Indices
Atlas
Catalogue of Aeronautical Maps and Charts
(Map-Chart Division, AAF)
World Almanac
Notes on the German Air Force
Organization of the German Air Force
Campaign Studies
Orders of Battle
Naval Identification Pictures
(Division of Naval Intelligence)
Warships in Code
Jane's Fighting Ships (Macmillan)
Ships and Aircraft of the U. S. Fleet 0· C. Fahey)
Silhouette Handbook, USAAF Airplanes
Aircraft Evaluation Report-British Aircraft
U. S. Army Aircraft (Assistant Chief of Air Staff)
Aircraft Intelligence Reports and Aircraft Evaluation
·R eports on Specific Enemy Aircraft
Report of the Conference Assembled irt London 1830 October, 1943, to report on the Japanese Air
Forces.
First 1100 Missions of the VIII Bomber Command
Informational Intelligence Summary No. 43-26
Japanese Armament and Aircraft
Informational Intelligence Summary No. 43-33
German Aircraft and Armament
Informational Intelligence Summary No. 43-39
Italian Aircraft and Armament
All available material on theater (flora, fauna, natives,
history and institutions of theater)
0...
;:::l
...0
C)
s=
s
~
bl)
.s
0
- ~ - _u__
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
. x
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
157
�PERIODICALS
Army Air Force Publications
(General)
Impact
Air Forces General Information Bulletin
Informational Intelligence Summary
Command Informational Intelligence Series
Special Informational Intelligence Reports
Weekly Review of Air Operations
AAF Counter-Intelligence Bulletin
(AC/ AS, Intelligence, Washington, D. C.)
Demonstration Air Force Intelligence Review
(Combat Intelligence Division, Demonstration Air Force, AAFTAC, Orlando, Florida)
Intelligence Reports and Intelligence Digests
(Director of Intelligence, School of Applied Tactics, AAFT AC, Orlando, Florida)
Tactical Planning
(Engineering Division, Materiel Command, Wright Field, Dayton, Ohio)
Weekly Intelligence Summary
(AC/ S, Intelligence, First Air Force, Mitchel Field, N. Y.)
Bomint
(Hq. First Bomber Command, Mitchel Field, N. Y.)
Air Intelligence Weekly Digest
(AC/S, Intelligence, Second Air Force, Colorado Springs, Colorado)
Intelligence Summary
(Hq., Allied Air Forces, SWPA, APO 925 (5th AF).)
Intelligence Summary
General Intelligence Bulletin
(Hq., Seventh Air Force, APO 953)
U. S. Strategic Air Forces in Europe
(Director of Intelligence (8th and 15th AF).)
Weekly Intelligence Summary
(Hq., Strategic Air Force, Eastern Air Command (10th AF).)
Air Intelligence Weekly Summary
(Hq., Northwest African Air Forces (12th AF).)
Air Information Bulletin
Asst. Chief of Staff, Intelligence, USAFISPA, Noumea, New Caledonia (13th AF).)
Weekly Intelligence Summary
(Hq. Air Command, Southeast Asia)
Joint Army and Navy Publications
Army-Navy Daily Intelligence Report
(Military Intelligence Service, War Dept., Washington, D. C.)
Army-Navy Monthly Intelligence Summary
(Military Intelligence Service, War Dept., Washington, D. C.)
U. S. Army-Navy Journal of Recognition
(Training Aids Division, AAF; Deputy Chief of Na val Operations (Air).)
Navy Publications
O.N.I. Weekly
Air Battle Notes from the South Pacific
Naval Aviation Confidential Bulletin
(Office of Naval Intelligence, Washington, D. C.)
158
(
(
�PERIODICALS
Technical Air Intelligence Summaries
Air Operational Analysis Reports
(Chief of Naval Operations, Washington, D. C.)
MID Publications
Special Series
Intelligence Bulletin
Tactical and Technical Trends
Military Reports on the United Nations
(Military Intelligence Division, W.D., Washington, D. C.)
British Publications
Air Ministry Weekly Intelligence Summary
(Air Ministry A.C.A.S. (1) (A.1.1)
MEW Intelligence Weekly
(Ministry of Economic Warfare)
Coastal Command Review
(Hq. Coastal Command, Royal Air Force)
War Office Weekly Intelligence Review
(General Staff, War Office, Dir. of Mil. Intelligence)
Weekly Intelligence Report
(Naval Intelligence Div., Naval Staff, Admiralty)
Evidence in Camera
(Air Ministry A.C.A.S. (1) (A.1.1)
Miscellaneous Publications
Operations Division Information Bulletin
(Operations Division, War Department General Staff, Washington, D. C.)
Intelligence Memoranda
(Antiaircraft Artillery Command, Fort Totten, N. Y.)
Arctic, Desert and Tropic Information Center Bulletin
(Arctic, Desert and Tropic Information Center)
Aviation Engineer Notes
(AC/ AS; M, M & D, Hq. AAF)
159
�APO
or
Address _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
- - - - - - - - 1 94--
SUBJECT: "Handbook for Combat Air Intelligence Officers"
TO:
Training Plans Division, Assistant Chief of Air Staff, Intelligence, Headquarters Army
Air Forces, Washington, D. C.
1. The following criticisms, corrections, and suggestions are submitted in reference to "Handbook for Combat Air Intelligence Officers" (Second Edition):
.
(
Name and Serial No. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Rank and Branch of Service _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
�APO
or
Address _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
- - - - - - - - 1 94-SUBJECT: "Handbook for Combat Air Intelligence Officers"
TO:
Training Plans Division, Assistant Chief of Air Staff, Intelligence, Headquarters Army
Air Forces, Washington, D. C.
1. The following criticisms, corrections, and suggestions are submitted in reference to "Handbook for Combat Air Intelligence Officers" (Second Edition):
Name and Serial No. ____________
(
Rank and Branch of Service __________
�APO
or
Address ____________
- - - - - - - - 1 94-SUBJECT: "Handbook for Combat Air Intelligence Officers"
TO:
Training Plans Division, Assistant Chief of Air Staff, Intelligence, Headquarters Army
Air Forces, Washington, D. C.
1. The following criticisms, corrections, and suggestions are submitted in reference to "Handbook for Combat Air Intelligence Officers" (Second Edition):
Name and Serial No. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Rank and Branch of Service _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
���
Dublin Core
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Title
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Manuals Collection
Description
An account of the resource
<p>The <strong>Manuals Collection</strong> features digitized manuals held by The Museum of Flight's Harl V. Brackin Memorial Library. Materials include aircraft and engine manuals produced by corporations and military branches.</p>
<p>Please note that materials on TMOF: Digital Collections are presented as historical objects and are unaltered and uncensored. These manuals are intended for research purposes and should not be used to build or operate aircraft. See our <a href="https://digitalcollections.museumofflight.org/disclaimers-policies">Disclaimers and Policies</a> page for more information.</p>
Source
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<a href="http://t95019.eos-intl.net/T95019/OPAC/Index.aspx">The Museum of Flight Library Catalog</a>
Rights Holder
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The Museum of Flight Library Collection
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Published works have been digitized under fair use. Material may be protected by copyright law. Responsibility for obtaining permission rests exclusively with the user.
Bibliographic Citation
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Manuals Collection/The Museum of Flight Library Collection
Identifier
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Manuals Collection
Text
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Call Number
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MANOPS.U5.A76.284
Dublin Core
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Identifier
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LMAN_text_081
Title
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Handbook for combat air intelligence officers.
Source
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Manuals Collection
Contributor
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United States. Army Air Forces Air Intelligence School.
Publisher
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Harrisburg, Pennsylvania : Army Air Forces Intelligence School
Description
An account of the resource
<p>At head of title: War Dept. Headquarters Army Air Forces.</p>
<p>"March, 1944."</p>
<p>"January, 1944"-- Cover.</p>
<p>Includes bibliography (pages 155-159).</p>
Table Of Contents
A list of subunits of the resource.
Preface -- Staff doctrines and functions -- Functions of the intelligence section -- Office organization and administration -- Knowledge of the enemy -- Knowledge of the friendly situation -- Briefing -- Interrogation -- Reporting -- Maps and diagrams -- Theater indoctrination -- Photo intelligence -- Capture intelligence -- Counterintelligence -- Public relations -- War rooms -- Recognition training -- Unit history -- Intelligence functions of higher echelons -- German Air Force -- Japanese Air Forces -- Appendixes. Aircraft -- Tactics -- Aircraft armament -- Enemy bombs -- Antiaircraft artillery -- Radar -- Booby traps -- Signals -- Camouflage, dummies and decoys -- Field equipment -- Armored vehicles -- Conversion tables -- Comparative ranks and grades -- Completed staff work.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1944
Subject
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United States. Army Air Forces--Handbooks, manuals, etc.
Military intelligenc--Handbooks, manuals, etc.
Aeronautics, Military--United States.
Extent
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159 pages : illustrations (black and white and color) ; 28 cm
Format
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manuals (instructional materials)
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A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible.
The Museum of Flight Library Collection
Rights
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No copyright - United States
-
https://digitalcollections.museumofflight.org/files/original/d8c84ce66146482d9b3247c7981aea8a.pdf
7dcc2c36faa4a8e278e9ac6121552633
PDF Text
Text
.- - ·-. __ =...-~_
RESTRICTED
THIS
REVISED
COVERED)
-~
COPIES
EDITION
PILOT
OF
SUPERSEDES
TRAINING
THE
LATTER
MANUAL
ARE
THE
ORIGINAL
FOR
THE
(TAN
LIBERATOR.
RESCINDED.
AAF MANUAL No. 50-1 ~
�MUSEUM OF FLIGHT
PROPERTY
, OF
ARCHIVES
DONATED IN MEMORY OF
GEORGE RAYMOND
•
LSS-1-2/1
For Fuf'M" C:t11trotim1s
9404 East Marginal Way South• Seattle, Washington 98108
�RESTRICTED
PILOT TRAINING MANUAL
...0
•...
z
.Ill
•
Ill
•,....
0
•
Published for Headquarters, AAF
Office of Assistant Chief of Air Staff, Training
By Headquarters, AAF, Office of Flying Safety
Revised 1 May, 1945
ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS MANUAL MAY BE OBTAINED UPON REQUEST TO HQ AAF,
OFFICE OF FLYING SAFETY, SAFETY EDUCATION DIVISION, WINSTON-SALEM 1, N. C.
RESTRICTED
WM. B. BURFORD PRINTING CO.
5·1 !·45- 22, 000
.
AAF Manual No. 50-12
��RESTRICTED
THIS MANUAL is the text for your training as a B-24 pilot and airplane commander.
The Air Forces' most experienced training and supervisory
personnel have collaborated to make it a complete exposition of
what your pilot duties are, how each duty will be performed, and
why it must be performed in the manner prescribed.
The techniques and procedures described in this book are
standard and mandatory. In this respect the manual serves the
dual purpose of a training checklist and a working handbook. Use
it to make sure that you ~earn everything described herein. Use it
to study and review the essential facts concerning everything taught.
Such additional self-study and review will not only advance your
training, but will alleviate the burden of your already overburdened
instructors.
This training manual does not replace the Technical Orders for
the airplane, which will always be your primary source of information concerning the B-24 so long as you fly it. This is essentially the
textbook of the B-24. Used
properly, it will enable you to utilize
I
the pertinent Technical Orders to even greater advantage.
COMMANDING GENERAL, ARMY AIR FORCES
RESTRICTED
�RESTRICTED
ord is best told by those who have flown it
through flak and swarming fighters, in mission
after mission, and know first hand what it
can do.
WHAT COMBAT LEADERS SAY:
The B-24 is used today all over the world. It is
the workhorse of ev,~ ry air force. Its formations
are roaring over mountains, seas, desert, and
arctic, laden with tons of destruction for the
enemy.
Liberators are being used more and more
in combat for one conclusive reason: The B-24
has everything-speed, climbing power, carrying ability, and above all, guts. The B-24 can
take it and dish it out. The B-24's combat rec4
"The B-24 has proved itself capable of delivering tremendous blows against the enemy over
extremely long ranges, under unfavorable
weather conditions and against heavy enemy
opposition. If the gunners are properly trained,
they can create havoc among enemy fighters. I
have seen formations of B-24's penetrate heavily defended battle zones, completely destroy
their target, fight off twice their number of
enemy fighters and, through their maneuverability and firepower, destroy over 50% of all
attacking enemy fighters without loss to themselves."
There and Back
"In the words of the old-time pilots, 'She'll take
you there and bring you back.' I have seen
B-24's shot up by 88-mm. anti-aircraft so badly
RESTRICTED
�RESTRICTED
it seemed impossible that the airplane could
stay in the air. One pilot brought his B-24 back
to base with half the rudder control completely
shot away. We have had airplanes come back
under almost unbelievable handicaps: with propellers shot off; with direct hits in gasoline cells
by 20, 40 and 88-mm. explosive shells; with the
2 lower engine supports knocked completely
off; with both ailerons gone; after complete loss
of rudder control; after loss of elevator control.
Airplanes have returned with controls so badly
damaged they were landed on autopilot."
Maneuverability
"A good gunner will conserve his ammunition
and make every bullet count. I was caught
once, separated from a formation, with no guns
working and 500 miles behind enemy front
lines, by an enemy plane which had a full load
of ammunition. We successfully evaded his attacks and forced him to expend all his ammunition. Maneuverability alone enabled us to return to base. One B-24 was separated from formation over the target and attacked by 15 ME
109's. Through skillful maneuvering and use
of firepower this crew shot down 8 of the enemy
fighters in a running battle of 100 miles and ret
·-·
turned safely to base. In another instance a
B-24 with the tail turret out was attacked in a
running battle. Enemy fighters knew the vulnerable spot and, as they approached from the
rear, the airplane was maneuvered so that the
top turret gunner could fire at them. Nine
enemy planes were shot down in this manner."
Instrument Flying
"The B-24 is a good instrument airplane. About
80 % of our flying was instrument or formation
or a combination of the two. It is a good indication of your flying ability and of the flight characteristics of the airplane when you can fly
formation for 5 or 6 hours and do it well and
then go back on instruments and fly a good
compass course for 3 or 4 hours. The ability to
get your plane back sometimes depends on this.
I know that during training in the U. S. it is
pretty hard to sit under a hood and fly instruments when you could just be cruising around.
It's hard to sit in a Link trainer for hours at a
time and work out your procedure. But it pays
RESTRICTED
off when you get out where you have to be good
in formation and instrument flying."
Guts
"The housing around the propeller and 3 cylinders of our No. 4 engine were shot out. Two
feet of prop on No. 1 engine was smashed, tearing a foot-and-a-half hole in the left aileron. The
engine was vibrating like a bucking bronco.
And we had a wing cell leak in No. 3. We were
both flying that airplane with every ounce of
skill we possessed. We put on 10° of flaps to get
the best lift without too much drag, and kept
our wings straight by using rudder. We muddled through the fighter attack and staggered
away from the target on 2½ engines. To gain
altitude to cross a mountain range, we threw
out everything that was movable, including
oxygen bottles, gas masks, ammunition, radio
equipment, and everything a screwdriver could
get loose. Somehow she brought us back. We
had to crash-land the plane but nobody was
hurt. The first thing I did after we got away
from the plane was to kiss the navigator."
Come-Back
"One of the B-24's was hit on the left wing,
jus:t outside the outboard engine. ,I thought the
wing would fall off, since the shot went right
through the main structure. You could have
dropped a barrel through the hole, but the airplane continued to fly formation. A few seconds
later a direct hit ripped a big hole in the bomb
bay, severed the aileron cable, knocked out the
hydraulic and electric systems and the oxygen
system. We escorted it 800 miles to the base.
It landed without ailerons and without brakes
and was back in service in about 3 weeks."
Range
A fully loaded Liberator crossed the Atlantic
in 6 hours and 12 minutes. The raid on the
Rumanian oil refineries was a round trip of
2500 miles. Raids from Midway Island on J apheld Wake Island involved a round trip of 2400
miles. British Air Chief Marshal Sir Christopher Courtney termed the Liberator the
"most successful of all anti-submarine aircraft
now used by the United Nations." The combat
record of the B-24 speaks for itself.
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Here's where they separate the men from the
boys. You can be one of the best B-24 pilots
ever trained and still fail as an airplane commander. In addition to qualifying yourself as
a top-flight pilot, you have the job of building a
fighting team that you can rely on in any emergency. Failure of any member of the crew to
do the right thing at the right time may mean
failure of your mission, unnecessary loss of
life and possible loss of your airplane.
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You Can 1 t Pass the Buck
Your authority as airplane commander carries
with it responsibility that you can not shirk.
Your engineer is a trained specialist, but his
training is incomplete. He knows how to transfer fuel, but does he know how to transfer it
in the particular airplane you are flying? It
isn't enough that he thinks so. You must know
what he knows. It is up to you to perfect the
basic training he has been given. An oversight
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of this kind cost a B-24 and 2 lives in the Pacific.
You are now flying a 10-man weapon. It is
your airplane, and your crew. You are responsible for the safety and efficiency of the crew
at all times-not just when you are flying, but
for the full 24 hours of every day while you
are in command.
Your crew is made up of specialists. Each
man-whether he is the navigator, bombardier,
engineer, radio operator, or one of the gunners
-is an expert in his line. But how well he does
his job, and how efficiently he plays his part
as a member of your combat team, will depend
to a great extent on how well you play your
own part as the airplane commander.
Know Your Crew
Learn all you can about each member of your
crew just as soon after he joins your outfit as
possible. Where is his home? What is his education? Is he married? What jobs has he had?
Where did he get his flight training? How does
he like the idea of being assigned to a B-24?
Your job is to_learn all you can about each
crew member so you can evaluate his qualifications, initiative, proficiency and reliability.
Know His Personal Habits
It is no business of yours whether a crew member spends his free hours in prayer, gambling,
or hunting turtle's eggs unless these habits interfere with the proper performance of ·his
duty. Then his business is your business. You
can't afford to see a mission jeopardized because a crew member doesn't get enough sleep,
comes to duty with a hangover, starts on a highaltitude mission with gas-producing food in his
stomach, or is so distracted by worry that he
cannot concentrate on the task at hand.
See that your men are properly quartered,
clothed, and fed. There will be many times,
when your airplane and crew are away from
the home base, when you may even have to
carry your interest to the extent of financing
them yourself. Remember always that you are
the commanding officer of a miniature army-a
specialized army; and that morale is one of the
biggest problems for the commander of any,
army, large or small.
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Crew Discipline
Your success as the airplane commander will
depend in a large measure on the respect, confidence, and trust which the crew feels for you.
It will depend also on how well you maintain
crew discipline.
Your position commands obedience and respect. This does not mean that you have to be
stiff-necked, overbearing, or aloof. Such ·c haracteristics certainly will defeat your purpose.
Be friendly, understanding, but firm. Know
your job, and, by the way you perform your
duties daily, impress upon the crew that you
do know your job. Keep close to your men, and
let them realize that· their interests are uppermost in your mind. Make fair decisions, after
due consideration of all the facts involved; but
make them in such a way as to impress upon
your crew that your decisions are made to stick.
Crew discipline is vitally important, but it
need not be as difficult a problem as it sounds.
Good discipline in an air crew breeds comradeship and high morale. And the combination is
unbeatable.
You can be a good CO and still be a regular
guy. You can command respect from your men,
and still be one of them.
"To associate discipline with informality,
comradeship, a leveling of rank, and at times a
shift in actual command away from the leader,
may seem paradoxical," says a former combat
group commander. "Certainly, it isn't down the
military groove. But it is discipline just the
same-and the kind of discipline that brings
success in the air."
Crew Training
Train your crew as a team. Keep abreast of
their training. It won't be possible for you to
follow each man's courses of instruction, but
you can keep a close check on his record and
progress.
Get to know each man's duties and problems.
Know his job, and try to devise ways and
means of helping him to perform it more efficiently.
Each crew member naturally feels great
pride in the importance of his particular specialty. You can help him to develop this pride
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to include the manner in which he performs
that duty. To do that you must possess .and
maintain a very thorough knowledge of each
man's job and the problems he has to deal with
in the performance of his duties.
Are You Ready to Fight?
Are your guns working? The only way you
can be sure is to know how competent and reliable your gunners are. It is uncomfortable to
get caught by a swarm of enemy fighters and
find that your guns won't function.
What about your navigator? You can't do
his job for him throughout training in the
states and expect him to guide you safely over
a thousand miles of water to a speck on the
map. Remember that there aren't any check
points in the ocean and you have to rely on
your navigator.
Your bombs miss the target. Long hours of
flying wasted ... why? It may be because the
bombsight gyro was not turned on long enough
in advance or because the bombsight was not
kept warm by means of the heater so that when
the bombardier put his warm face to the eyepiece, it fogged up and was . unusable. Who is
at fault? The bombardier is, of course, primarily
to blame, but in the background there is usually lack of leadership, guidance and inspiration.
No crew is ever any more on the ball than its
airplane commander.
Practical Questions
1. Are you the airplane commander, qualifying yourself to do justice to your crew?
2. Can all of your crew fly at high altitudes
without discomfort or physical handicap?
3. Does anyone in your crew get airsick?
4. Are the turret gunners too big for their
turrets?
5. Can the copilot take over in emergency?
6. Does the radio operator understand DF
aids?
7. Do the gunners know how to unload and
stow their guns?
8. Do the engineer and the copilot ( and do
you) know how to use the load adjuster and
how to load the airplane properly?
9. Do the engineer and copilot (and you) use
8
the control charts on every flight to check your
knowledge of power settings and the efficient
performance of your airplane?
10. Does your crew know emergency procedures and signals?
11. Is each member of your crew properly
equipped?
12. What can you do to prevent or relieve
anoxia, air sickness, fatigue?
13. Who is qualified to render first aid?
14. How's the morale of your outfit? Are
they eager or do they sluff off?
15. How will your crew react in emergency?
These are just a few of the practical questions
you as airplane commander must be able to
answer to your own satisfaction.
RULES TO BE ENFORCED
ON EVERY FLIGHT BY THE
AIRPLANE COMMANDER
1. Smoking
a. No smoking in airplane at an altitude of
less than 1000 feet.
b. No smoking during fuel transfer.
c. Never carry lighted cigarette through
bomb bays.
d. Never attempt to throw a lighted cigarette
from the airplane. Put it out first.
2. Parachutes
a. All persons aboard will wear parachute
harness at all times from takeoff to landing.
b. Each person aboard will have a parachute
on every flight.
3. Propellers
a. No person will walk through propellers
at any time whether they are turning or not.
b. No person will leave the airplane when
propellers are turning unless personally ordered to do so by the airplane commander.
4. Oxygen Masks
a. Oxygen masks will be carried on all day
flights where altitude may exceed 10,000 feet
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and on all night flights, regardless of altitude.
b. Day: All persons will use oxygen starting
at 7000 to 10,000 feet on all day flights where
altitude at any time will exceed 10,000 feet.
c. Night: All persons will use oxygen from
the ground up on all flights during which
altitude may exceed 10,000 feet.
5. Training
a. Tell your crew the purpose of each mission and what you expect each to accomplish.
b. Keep the crew busy throughout the flight.
Get position reports from the navigator; send
them out through the radio operator. Put the
engineer to work in the cruise control and
maximum range charts. Require the copilot to
keep a record of engine performance. Give ·
them a workout. Encourage them to use their
skill. Let them sleep in their own bunks-not
in a B-24. A team is an active outfit. Make the
most of every practice mission.
c. Practice all emergency procedures at least
once a week; bailout, ditching and fire drill.
6. Inspections
a. Check your airplane with reference to
the particular mission you are undertaking.
Check everything.
b. Check your crew for equipment, preparedness and understanding.
7. lnterphone
a. Keep the interphone chattering. Ask for
immediate reports of aircraft, trains, and ships
just as you would expect them in combat-with
proper identification.
b. Require interphone reports every 15 minutes from all crew men when on oxygen.
SUGGESTED COMBAT CREW DUTY ASSIGNMENTS
PILOT
Principal duty :
Secondary duty:
Added duty
Airplane Commander
Pilot
Navigation Specialist
Principal duty :
Secondary duty:
Added duty
Added duty
Added duty
Assistant Airplane Commander
Airplane Engineering Officer and Assistant Pilot
Fire Officer
Navigational Specialist
Gunfire Control Officer
Principal duty ;
Secondary duty:
Added duty
Added duty
Added duty
Navigator
Qualified as Nose Turret Gunner
Assistant Bombardier
Oxygen and Equipment Officer
First Aid Specialist
Principal duty :
Secondary duty:
Added duty
Added duty
Bombardier
Qualified as Nose Turret Gunner
Airplane Armament Officer
Navigation Specialist
COPILOT
NAVIGATOR
BOMBARDIER
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AERIAL ENGINEER
Principal duty :
Secondary duty:
Added duty
Added duty
Added duty
Added duty
Aerial Engineer
Top Turret Gunner
Qualified for Copilot Duties
Parachute Officer
First Aid Specialist
Assistant Radio Operator
RADIO OPERATOR
Principal duty :
Secondary duty:
Added duty
Added duty
Added duty
Radio Operator
Waist Gunner
Assistant Airplane Engineer
First Aid Specialist
Qualified as rop Turret Gunner
NOSI TURRET GUNNER
Principal duty :
Secondary duty:
Added duty
Nose Turret Gunner
Turret Specialist
Assistant to Armament Officer
BILLY TURRET GUNNER
Principal duty :
Secondary duty:
Belly Turret Gunner
Turret Specialist
TAIL TURRET GUNNER
Principal duty :
Secondary duty:
Added duty
Tail Turret Gunner
Turret Specialist
Assistant to Parachute Officer
Purpose of Assigning Added Duties
These assignments are not just so many titles.
Each duty represents a specific job to be done.
As airplane commander, you are responsible
for everything but you can't do everything.
These assignments, properly explained, will
arouse the enthusiasm, energy and initiative of
your crew. You have the right to demand that
each crew member become an expert and maintain expert status in the particular duties assigned to him. There is nothing ironclad about
the added duty assignments. These can be
shifted around if there is a clear-cut advantage
in doing so. For example, the suggested added
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duty of the crew oxygen and equipment officer
can be shifted from the navigator to the bombardier or to one of the other crew members
if he is better qualified or indicates a greater
interest in the problem. The main thing is to
spread the duties, encourage the individual to
become an expert and then require him to educate and supervise the rest of the crew regarding his particular specialty. Ask the crew member to read all he can and learn all he can
about his specific duties; to be prepared to
conduct and aid in inspections and drills, and
to give the crew periodic instruction in his
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specialty. You, as airplane commander, are the
sparkplug of this plan. You will assign duties,
call drills, and give your specialists as much
opportunity as possible to spread their knowledge. To aid you, here are definitions of some
of the less understood added duties.
Definitions of Added Duties
Airplane Engineering Officer-It is the duty of
this officer (almost always the copilot) to know
more about the airplane than any member of
the crew and to see that all other crew members are instructed in all procedures pertaining
to the airplane. The engineering officer should
be able, by judicious questioning, to size up a
new flight engineer in a few minutes' time. He
should be able to perform any of the flight engineer's duties. It is his job to se~ that all crew
members are instructed in the proper methods
of transferring fuel. He is charged with the
duty of seeing that proper records of engine
operations are kept from flight to flight so that
faulty operation will be detected before it becomes serious. He should be intimately familiar
with the cruise control, climb, and maximum
range charts and should educate the engineer
in their use.
Gunfire Control Officer-It has been found that
the copilot is in the best position to serve as
gunfire control officer. He has the best view of
developing attacks, although he cannot possibly
see all enemy fighters. Although he does not
attempt to actively direct the fire from ~11 guns,
he does supervise the calling of attacks, maintains strict interphone discipline, and sees that
the plan and procedure for controlling fire is
strictly followed. He is responsible for seeing
that the crew is properly indoctrinated in the
use of the throat microphone and established
practice-mission procedures which will simulate as nearly as possible the interphone conversations that would be necessary in combat.
In the heat of battle, crew members tend to talk
too fast, speak in too high a tone, or allow the
microphone to be improperly placed. The gunfire control officer will develop the interphone
proficiency to a point where absolute cooperation between gun stations can be maintained
on interphone.
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Navigation Specialist-Individuals with this assignment should understand all aids to navigation, understand how the navigator's log is
kept, and be able in emergency to ascertain the
location of the airplane and help to bring it
back to base. Obviously, these men cannot be
fully qualified navigators, but should know
everything possible about navigation procedures that may be of aid in case the navigator
is incapacitated.
Oxygen and Equipment Officer-This job requires a detailed understanding of the equipment and its operation. This officer confers with
the personal equipment officer of the squadron
regarding the use of all equipment, precautions to be taken, proper fit and care, and sees
that all crew members are properly instructed.
He makes periodic inspections of the crew as
directed by the pilot to see that oxygen equipment is properly fitted and used. He, checks all
crew members on the use of walk-around bottles and ·s ees that correct procedures are followed on high-altitude missions.
First-Aid Specialist-This assignment should
be given, as far as possible, to individuals who
already have a good knowledge of first aid.
However, there should be one specialist in the
nose, one in the rear compartment and one on
the flight deck. If individuals in these compartments are not familiar with first aid, pilot
should see that they receive adequate instruction. Combat reports reveal that lack of knowledge of first aid has cost lives on combat missions.
Fire Officer-This officer, usually the copilot,
should know the location of all fire-fighting apparatus and know specifically when and how
to use it. He should instruct the entire crew
on their exact duties in case of fires. He will
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arrange a program of fire drill with the pilot,
aid in conducting the drill, and point out all
mistakes. He will conduct a periodic inspection
of the ship for fire hazards, see that the fire
prevention rules are obeyed and be responsible
to the pilot for proper precautions against fire.
Qualified as Turret Gunner-Crew members
whose stations are adjacent to turrets should
be able to take over the turret and operate it
if emergency requires. Turret specialists instruct such crew members in the operation of
the turret and use spare time in flight and on
the ground to qualify such crew members as
emergency turret gunners. Then they can give
assistance in case of trouble with tFte turret or
if the turret specialist is incapacitated.
Airplane Armament Officer-The armament
officer must be familiar with all armament
the airplane carries, the protection it provides
and how it can best be used. In addition to his
duties in connection with the loading, arming
and dropping of bombs, he aids the pilot in enforcing the safety regulations regarding practice bombing, practice gunnery, and proper
loading, unloading, and stowing of guns. In
case of accidental discharge of a gun, he, with
the gunner and pilot, will usually be considered
at fault, on the ground that he has insufficiently
instructed the gunner in procedures and precautions.
Parachute Officer-This officer will see that
each crew member has his own properly fitted
parachute, that he knows how to use it, that
he knows how and where to leave the plane
and how to open the chute and descend. (See
PIF.) He will plan a drill schedule with the
pilot and aid in parachute drill. Through the
pilot he will see that rules regarding the care,
inspection, fitting and wearing of parachutes
12
are observed in accordance with AAF regulations and requirements.
Turret Specialist-The turret specialist must
know not only how to operate his turret but
how to repair it and put it back in operation
if necessary. He will give instruction at every
opportunity to crew members near his station
to qualify them as assistant turret gunners.
Assistant Assignments-An assistant is one who
can take over a job and do it as well as the
regularly assigned individual if necessary. The
assistant radio operator, for example, should
be able to take over and operate the radio as
well ( or almost as well) as the regular radio
operator, etc. The most valuable man on a team
is the one who can take over other jobs than
his own if and when required to do so.
The above is by no means a complete statement of this problem but it should give the
airplane commander the idea of what it means
to "train your crew," for every man to "know
every other man's job," and what is meant by
teamwork. These are not empty phrases. Every
15 minutes wasted on a mission means your
crew is 15 minutes less well prepared for combat. There is no reason for your radio equipment to be idle. Your engineer has no time to
sleep or sit and vegetate if he is carrying out
his job of teaching all crew members to transfer
fuel, working the cruise control charts, really
keeping on the ball. You have to fly a practice
mission ... so why not run it so that your crew
will get all they can out of it? It is real pleasure
to develop topnotch proficiency and teamwork,
and your crew will actually enjoy missions
more if they feel that their skills are being utilized to the fullest extent, if only in practice.
It is worth while to discuss here also the
principal duties of each of the crew members
to aid the commander in judging their ability.
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COPILOT
The copilot is the executive officer: your chief
assistant, understudy, and strong right arm.
He must be familiar enough with every one
of your duties-both as pilot and airplane commander-and be able to take over and act in
your place at any time.
He must be able to fly the airplane under
all conditions as well as you would fly it
yourself.
He must be extremely proficient in engine
operation, and know instinctively what to do
to keep the airplane flying smoothly even
though he is not handling the controls.
He must have a thorough knowledge of cruising control data, and know how to apply it at
the proper time.
He is also the engineering officer aboard the
airplane, and maintains a complete log of performance data.
He must be a qualified instrument pilot.
He must be qualified to navigate during day
or night by pilotage, dead reckoning, and by
use of radio aids.
He must be proficient in the operation of all
radio equipment located in the pilot's compartment.
In formation flying, he must be able to make
engine adjustments almost automatically.
He must be prepared to take over on instruments when the formation is climbing through
an overcast, thus enabling you to watch the rest
of the formation.
Always remember that the copilot is a fully
trained, rated pilot just like yourself. He is
subordinate to you only by virtue of your position as the airplane commander. But the B-24
is a lot of airplane; more airplane than any one
pilot can handle alone over a long period of
time. Therefore, you have been provided with
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a second pilot who will share the duties of
flight operation.
Treat your copilot as a brother pilot. Remember that the more proficient he is as a pilot,
the more efficiently he will be able to perform
the duties of the vital post he holds as your
second in command.
Be sure that he is always allowed to do his
share of the flying, in the copilot's seat, on takeoffs, landings, and on instruments.
The importance of the copilot is eloquently
testified by airplane commanders overseas.
There have been numerous cases in which the
pilot has been disabled or killed in flight and
the copilot has taken full command of both
airplane and crew, completed the mission, and.
returned safely to the home base. Usually, the
copilots who have distinguished themselves under such conditions have been copilots who
have been respected and trained by the airplane commander as pilots.
Bear in mind that the pilot in the right-hand
seat of your airplane is preparing himself for
an airplane commander's post too. Allow him
every chance to develop his ability and to
profit by your experience.
NAVIGATOR
The navigator's job is to direct your flight from
departure to destination and return. He must
know the exact position of the airplane at all
times. In order for you to understand fully how
best to get most reliable service from your
navigator, you must know as much about his
job as possible.
Navigation is the art of determining geographic positions by means of (a) pilotage,
(b) dead reckoning, (c) radio, or (d) celestial
navigation, or any combination of these 4
methods. By any one or combination of methods the navigator determines the position of
the airplane in relation to the earth.
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Pilotage
Pilotage is the method of determining the airplane's position by visual reference to the
ground. The importance of accurate pilotage
cannot be overstressed. In combat navigation,
all bombing targets are approached by pilotage,
and in many theaters the route is maintained
by pilotage. This requires not merely the vicinity type, but pin-point pilotage. The exact position of the airplane must be known not within
5 miles, but within¼ of a mile.
The navigator does this by constant reference
to groundspeeds, the ground, and to his maps
and charts. ETA's are established for points
ahead. During the mission, as long as he can
maintain visual contact with the ground, the
navigator can establish these pin-point positions so that the exact track of the airplane
will be known when the mission is completed.
Dead Reckoning
Dead reckoning is the basis of all other types
of navigation. For instance, if the navigator is
doing pilotage, and computes ETA's for points
ahead, he is using dead reckoning.
Dead reckoning determines the position of
the airplane at any given time by keeping an
account of the track and distance flown over
the earth's surface from the point of departure
or the last known position.
Dead reckoning can be subdivided into two
classes:
1. Dead reckoning based on a series of known
positions. For example, you, as pilot, start on
a mission at 25,000 feet. For the first hour your
navigator keeps track by pilotage, at the same
time recording the heading and airspeed which
you are holding. According to plan at the end
of the first hour the airplane goes above the
clouds, thus losing contact with the ground. By
means of dead reckoning from his last pilotage
point, the navigator is able to tell the position of ,
the aircraft at any time. The first hour's travel
has given him the wind prevalent at the altitude, and the track and groundspeed being
made. By computing track and distance from
the last pilotage point, he can always tell the
position of the airplane. When your airplane
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comes out of the clouds near the target, the
navigator will have a very close approximation
of his exact position, and will be able to pick up
pilotage points very quickly.
2. Dead reckoning as a result of visual references other than pilotage. When flying over
water, desert, or barren land, where no reliable
pilotage points are available, very accurate
DR navigation still can be performed. By means
of the drift meter the navigator is able to determine drift, the angle between the heading of
the aircraft and the track of the aircraft over
the ground. The true heading of the aircraft is
obtained by application of compass error to the
compass reading. The true heading plus or
minus the drift (as read on the drift meter)
gives the track of the airplane. At a constant
airspeed, drift on 2 or more headings will give
the navigator information necessary to obtain
the wind by use of his computer. Groundspeed
is computed easily once the wind, heading, and
airspeed are known. So by constant recording
of true heading, true airspeed, drift, and
groundspeed, the navigator is able to determine accurately the position of the aircraft at
any given time. For greatest accuracy. constant
courses and airspeeds must be maintained by
the pilot. If course or airspeed is changed,
notify the navigator so he can record these
changes.
Radio
Radio navigation makes use of various radio
aids to determine position. The development of
many new radio devices has increased the use
of radio in combat zones. However, the ease
with which radio aids can be jammed, or bent,
limits the use of radio to that of a check on
DR and pilotage. The navigator, in conjunction
with the radioman, is responsible for all radio
procedures, approaches, etc., that are in effect
in the theater.
Celestial
Celestial navigation is the science of determining position by reference to 2 or more celestial bodies. The navigator uses a sextant accurate time and numerous tables to obtain what
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he calls a line of position. Actually this line is
part of a circle on which the altitude of the particular body is constant for that instant of time.
An intersection of 2 or more of these lines gives
the navigator a fix. These fixes can be relied on
as being accurate within approximately 10
miles. The reason for inaccuracy is the instability of the airplane as it moves through space,
causing acceleration of the sextant bubble (a
level denoting the horizontal). Because of this
acceleration, the navigator takes observations
over a period of time so that the acceleration
error will cancel out to some extent. If the
navigator tells the pilot when he wishes to
take an observation, extremely careful flying
on the part of the pilot during the few minutes
it takes to make the observations will result
in much greater accuracy. Generally speaking,
the only celestial navigation used by a combat
crew is during the qelivering flight to the
theater. But in all cases celestial navigation
is used as a check on dead reckoning and pilotage except where celestial is the only method
available, such as on long over-water flights, etc.
Instrument Calibration
Instrument calibration is an important duty of
the navigator. All navigation depends directly
on the accuracy of his instruments. Correct
calibration requires close cooperation and extremely careful flying by the pilot. Instruments
to be calibrated include the altimeter, all compasses, airspeed indicators, alignment of the
astrocompass, astrograph, and drift meter, and
checks on the navigator's sextant and watch.
Pilot-Navigator Preflight Planning
1. Pilot and navigator must study flight plan
of the route to be flown, and select alternate
airports.
2. Study the weather with the navigator.
Know what weather you are likely to encounter. Decide what action is to be taken. Know
the weather conditions at the alternate airports.
3. Inform your navigator of what airspeed
and altitude you wish to fly so that he can
prepare his flight plan.
4. Learn what type of navigation the navigator intends to use: pilotage, dead reckoning,
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radio, celestial, or a combination of all methods.
5. Determine check points; plan to make
radio fixes.
6. Work out an effective communication
method with your navigator to be used in flight.
7. Synchronize your watch with. your navigator's.
Pilot-Navigator in Flight
1. Constant course-For accurate navigation
you, the pilot, must fly a constant course. The
navigator has many computations and notations
to make in his log. Constantly changing course
makes his job more difficult. A good navigator
is supposed to be able to follow the pilot, but
he cannot be taking compass readings all the
time.
2. Constant airspeed must be held as nearly
as possible. This is as important to the navigator as is a constant course in determining
position.
3. Precision flying by the pilot greatly affects
the accuracy of the navigator's instrument
readings, particularly celestial readings. A
slight error in celestial reading can cause considerable error in determining positions. You
can help the navigator by providing as steady
a platform as possible from which he can take
readings. The navigator should notify you when
he intends to take readings so that the airplane
can be leveled off and flown as smoothly as possible preferably by using the automatic pilot.
Do not allow your navigator to be disturbed
while he is taking celestial readings.
4. Notify the navigator in advance of any
change in flight such as change in altitude,
course, or airspeed. If change in flight plan is
to be made, consult the navigator. Talk over
the proposed change so that he can plan the
flight and advise you concerning it.
5. In the event there is doubt as to the
position of the airplane, pilot and navigator
should work together, refer to the navigator's
flight log, talk the problem over and decide
together the best course of action to take.
6. Check your compasses at intervals with
those of the navigator, noting any deviation.
7. Require your navigator to give position
reports at regular intervals.
15
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8. You are ultimately responsible for getting
the airplane to its destination. Therefore, it is
your duty to know your position at all times.
9. Encourage your navigator to use as many
of the methods of navigation as possible as a
means of double-checking and for practice.
Post-flight Critique
After every flight get together with the navigator and discuss the flight and compare notes.
Go over the navigator's log. If there have been
serious navigational errors, discuss them with
the navigator and determine their cause. If the
navigator has been at fault, caution him that
it is his job to see that the same mistake does
not occur again. If the error has been caused
by faulty instruments, see that they are corrected before another navigation mission is
attempted. If your flying has contributed to the
inaccuracy of the navigation, try to fly a better
course the next mission.
Miscellaneous Duties
The navigator's primary duty is navigating
your airplane with a high degree of accuracy.
But as a member of the team, he must also
have a general knowledge of the entire operation of the airplane.
He has a .50-cal. machine gun at his station,
and he must be able · to use it skillfully and to
service it in emergencies.
He must be familiar with the-oxygen system,
know how to operate the turrets, radio equipment, and fuel transfer system.
He must know the location of all fuses and
spare fuses, lights and spare lights, affecting
navigation.
He must be familiar with emergency procedures, such as the man~al operation of landing gear, bomb bay doors, and flaps, and the
proper procedures for crash landings, ditching,
bailout, etc.
THE BOMBARDIER
Accurate and effective bombing is the ultimate
purpose of your entire airplane and crew.
Every other function is preparatory to hitting
and, destroying the target.
That's your bombardier's job. The success
or failure of the mission depends upon what
16
he accomplishes in the short interval of the
bombing run.
When the bombardier takes over the airplane
for the run on the target, he is in command.
He will tell you what he wants done, and until
he gives you the word "Bombs away," his word
is virtually law.
A great deal, therefore depends on the understanding between bombardier and pilot. You
expect your bombardier to know his job when
he takes over. He expects you to understand
the problems involved in his job, and to give
him full cooperation. Teamwork between pilot
and bombardier is essential.
Under any given set of conditions, ground
speed, altitude, direction, etc., there is only
one point in space where a bomb may be released from the airplane to hit a predetermined
object on the ground.
There are many things with which a bombardier must be thoroughly familiar in order to
release his bombs at the right point to hit this
predetermined target.
He must know and understand his bombsight, what it does, and how it does it.
He must thoroughly understand the operation and upkeep of his bombing instruments
and equipment.
He must know that his racks, switches, controls, releases, doors, linkage, etc., are in firstclass operating condition.
He must understand the automatic pilot as
it pertains to bombing.
He must know how to set it up, make air
adjustments and minor repairs while in flight.
He must know how to operate all gun positions in the airplane.
He must know how to load and how to clear
simple stoppages and jams of guns in flight.
He must be able to load and fuse his own
bombs.
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He must understand the destruction power
of bombs and must know the vulnerable spots
on various types of targets.
He must understand the bombing problem,
bombing probabilities, bombing errors, etc.
He must be thoroughly versed in target identification and in aircraft identification.
The bombardier should be familiar with the
duties of all members of the crew and should
be able to assist the navigator in case the navigator becomes incapacitated.
For the bombardier to be able to do his job,
the pilot of the aircraft must place the aircraft
in the proper position to arrive at a point on a
circle about the target from which the bombs
can be released to hit the target.
Unless the pilot performs his part of the
bombing run correctly, even the best bombardier in the world will be unable to bomb accurately. The pilot's failure to hold airspeed
and altitude will cause the following bombing
errors:
1. Flying too high: bomb will hit over.
2. Flying too low: bomb will fall short.
3. Flying too fast: bomb will fall sh9rt.
4. Flying too slow: bomb will hit over.
It is imperative that you check your radio operator's ability to handle his job before taking
him overseas as part of your crew. To do this
you may have to check the various instructordepartments to find out any weakness in the
radio ~perator's training and proficiency and
to aid the insti:uctors in overcoming such weaknesses.
Training in the various phases of the heavy
bomber program is designed to fit each member
of the crew for the handling of his jobs. The
radio operator will be required to:
1. Render position reports every 30 minutes.
2. Assist the navigator in taking fixes.
3. Keep the liaison and command sets properly tuned and in good operating order.
4. Understand from an operational point of
view:
(a) Instrument landing
(b) IFF
(c) VHF
and other navigational aids equipment in your
airplane.
5. Maintain a log.
In addition to being radio operator, the radio
man is also a gunner. During periods of combat
he will be required to leave his watch at the
radio and take up his guns. He is often required
to learn photography. Some of the best pictures
taken in the Southwest Pacific were taken by
radio operators. The radio operator who cannot
perform his job properly may be the weakest
member of your crew. And the crew is no
stronger than its weakest member.
THE RADIO OPERATOR
There is a lot of radio equipment in today's
B-24's. There is one special man who is supposed to know all there is to know about this
equipment. Sometimes he does but often he
doesn't. His deficiencies often do not become
apparent until the crew is in the combat zone,
when it is too late. Too often the lives of pilots
and crew are lost because the radio operator
has accepted his responsibility indifferently.
Radio is a subject that cannot be learned in
a day. It cannot be mastered in 6 weeks, but
sufficient knowledge can be imparted to the
radio man during his period of training in the
United States providing he is willing to study.
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THE ENGINEER
Size up the man who is to be your engineer.
This man is supposed to know more about the
mechanical features of the airplane you are to
fly than any other member of the crew.
17
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He has been trained in the Air Forces' highly specialized technical schools. Probably he
has served some time as a crew chief. Nevertheless there may be some blank spots in his
training which you; as a pilot and airplane commander, must fill in.
Think back on your own training. In many
courses of instruction, you had a lot of things
thrown at you from right and left. You had to
concentrate on how to fly; and where your
equipment was concerned you learned to rely
more and more on the enlisted personnel, particularly the crew chief and the engineer, to
advise you about things that were not taught
to you because of lack of time and the arrangement of the training program.
Both pilot and engineer have a responsibility
to work losely together to supplement and fill
in the blank spots in each other's education.
To be a qualified combat engineer a man must
know his airplane, his engines, and his armament equipment thoroughly and know how to
strip, clean and re-assemble the guns. This is
a big responsibility: the lives of the entire crew,
the safety of the equipment, the success of the
mission depend squarely upon it.
He must work closely with the copilot, checking engine operation, fuel consumption, and the
operation of all equipment.
He must be able to work with the bombardier, and know how to cock, lock, and load the
bomb racks.
It is up to you, the airplane commander, to
see that he is familiar with these duties, and,
if he is hazy concerning them, to have the
bombardier give him special help and instruction.
He should have a general knowledge of radio
equipment and be able to assist in tuning transmitters and receivers.
Your engineer should be your chief source of
information concerning the airplane. He should
know more about the equipment than anyone,
yourself included.
You, in turn, are his source of information
concerning flying. Bear this in mind in all your
discussions with the engineer. The more complete you can make his knowledge of the reasons behind every function of ·t he equipment,
18
the more valuable he will be as a member of
the crew. Who knows? Some day that little
bit of extra knowledge in the engineer's mind
may save the day in an emergency.
Generally, in emergencies, the engineer will
be the man to whom you turn first. Build up his
pride, his confidence, his knowledge. Know him
personally; check on the extent of his knowledge. Make him a man upon whom you can
rely.
THE GUNNERS
The B-24 is a most effective gun platform, but
its effectiveness can be either amplified or defeated by the way the gunners in your crew
perform their duties in action.
Your gunners belong to one of two distinct
categories: turret gunners and flexible gunners.
The power turret gunners require many
mental and physical qualities similar to what
we know as inherent flying ability, since the
operation of the power turret and gunsight are
much like airplane operation.
While the flexible gunner does not require
,the same delicate touch as the turret gunner,
he must have a fine sense of timing and be familiar with the rudiments of exterior ballistics.
All gunners should be familiar with the coverage area of all gun positions, and be prepared
to bring the proper gun to bear as the condition may warrant.
They should be experts in aircraft identification.
Where the Sperry turret is used, failure to
set the target dimension dial properly on the
K-type sight will result in miscalculation of
range.
They must be familiar thoroughly with the
Browning aircraft machine gun. They should
know how to maintain the guns, how to clear
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jams and stoppages, and how to harmonize the
sights with the guns.
While participating in training flights, the
gunners should be .operating their turrets constantly, tracking with the flexible guns even
when actual firing is not practical. Other airplanes flying in the vicinity offer excellent
tracking targets. Automobiles, houses, and other ground objects afford excellent tracking targets during low-altitude flights.
The importance of teamwork cannot be over- .
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emphasized. One poorly trained gunner, or one
man not on the alert, can be the weak link that
destroys the entire crew.
Keep the interest of your gunners alive at
all times. Any form of competition among the
gunners themselves will stimulate interest to
a high degree.
Finally, each gunner should fire the guns at
each station to familiarize himself with the
other man's position and to insure knowledge
of operation in the event of an emergency.
19
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GENERAL SPECIFICATIONS
DIMENSIONS
A. AIRPLANE-GENERAL
Fuselage Height •...............•...•.•.....••.•....•...•...•.. , , •• , •. , . , , . 10' 5"
Over-all Span .............................•..........•.•.................. 11 0' 0"
Over-all Length ....•......................•................. ......•........ 67' 2"
Over-all Height •.........................•.•...•.......................... 17' 11"
Clearance, Inboard Propeller Tip to Ground ..•................•...•........... 2' 10½"
Clearance, Outboard Propeller Tip to Ground .•.••••......•.......•.. : •.••.... 3' 3½"
Clearance, Propeller Tip to Fuselage ..••...................................•. 1' 9"
Clearance, Inboard to Outboard Propeller Tips ..•••.••........................ 2' 6"
Clearance, Propeller to Wing leading Edge ..••.....................•......... 6' 2 1/ 16"
Clearance, Bottom of Fuselage to Ground •••...•............................. 1' 8"
B. WINGS
Root Chord ................................•.............................. 14' O"
Dihedral .......•..•....................•.......•......................... 3° 26'
Incidence ................................•.......••.......... , ............ 3° 0'
Sweep-Leading Edge ............................•.............•...•...... 3° 30'
Total Wing Area (Including Ailerons) •..•......••....•....................... 1048 sq. ft.
C, FLAP.S
Area (Total) .....•.....•........................•.....•..............•.... 144.1 sq. ft.
Chord (Maximum) .•....................•.............•...............•.•.. 2' 7 7 / 16"
Movement of Flaps (Maximum Down) ....•...........................•.•.... 40°
D. AILERONS
Total Area (each) .•...................•.....••••.•.•...........••••..••.•• 41.55 sq. ft.
Movement of Aileron, Up ...................•.....•...................•..•. 20°
Down .....•.....••.....••..•........•.........•.•.•.. 20°
Area of Aileron Tab (Right Aileron) ....••......•......................•...•. 2.52 sq. ft.
Movement of Tab, Up •..........................•...........•.............. 10°
Down ..•.•..............................•............... 10°
E. TAIL GROUP
( 1) Horizontal Stabilizer
Over-all Span .........•.........•...................................... 26' o".
Total Area ...•.............•... '. ..•................•.................. 140.54 sq. ft.
(2) Elevators
Total Area .... '..•.....................................•............... 60.06 sq. ft.
Movement of Elevator, Up ................•............ ·.......•.......... 30°
Down .••............•...•..•.......•............. 20°
Area of Elevator :rab (Both) ..••.••...................•................•. 2.40 sq. ft.
Movement of Tab, Up ....................•...•...•..................•... 10°
Down .................•.......•....•..•.............. 10°
(3) Vertical fins
· Area (Both) ................•.•.•.•....•........•.....................•.. 139.0 sq. ft.
(4) Rudders
Total Area (Both) ........•.............................................. 65.0 sq. ft.
Movement (To Each Side) ..•••.................•........................ 20°
Area of Rudder Tabs (Both) •....•..........•.••.........•...•........... 1.92 sq. ft.
Movement of Tab (Each Side) .....................•..••..••..........•... 10°
F. LANDING GEAR
Tread ...••...........................••..•...•...•...••..••..•.•...... 25' 7½"
Wheel Base (Fore and Aft) •......•.......•.........................•..... 16' O"
NOTE:
It is impractical to include in a manual of this
kind all data for all series. The obied is to give
the pilot a general picture of the B-24 airplane.
It is your obligation to note and investigate the
20
individual differences in the particular airplane
you are flying. Refer to the technical orders available in the airplane and at your base. Remember
that you can never know too much about your
airplane.
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- - - - - - - 67'2"--------i
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21
�GENERAL DESCRIPTION
The B-24 is a midwing, land, heavy bombardment airplane
of the following approximate over-all dimensions:
length 67 feet, 2 inches; height 17 feet, 11 inches; span 110 feet.
Weight varies from a basic weight of approximately
38,000 lb. to combat loads of over 60,000 lb.
Compartments
Landing Gear
3
I
4
0-
1. Bombardier-navigator's compartment, in
the nose of the airplane, contains navigational
equipment, bombsight, bomb controls, and nose
guns, or in the case of later models) nose turret.
2. Flight deck includes pilots' compartment,
radio operator's station and top gun turret.
3. Two bomb bays are in the center of the
fuselage under the center wing section. Half
deck is located above the rear bomb bay.
4. Rear fuselage compartment contains
lower gun turret, waist guns, bottom camera
hatch, and photographic equipment. Tail gun
turret is in the extreme rear of the fuselage.
22
The tricycle gear consists of 2 main wheels and
a nosewheel, mounted on air-oil shock struts.
The nosewheel is free to swivel 45° each way
but should never be turned more than 30°; it is
damped against shimmying.
All 3 units are norm,ally extended and retracted hydraulically by a lever on the pilot's
control pedestal which also operates the landing
gear locking mechanism.
The retractable shock-mounted tail bumper
( or tailskid) is operated simultaneously with
the landing gear (B-24 C's and early B-24 D's
have non-retractable tail bumpers).
The inherent directional stability of the tricycle gear is an important aid to the pilot during taxiing, takeoff, landing operation in crosswinds, and with blown tires.
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Equipment and Systems
The various types of equipment and systems
such as the fuel, oil, hydraulic, and other systems are described in detail in separate sections
of this manual. Specific and complete practical
understanding of these systems is imperative
for the pilot because of the emergencies which
arise in combat operations.
for the combination of high speed, long range
and great load-carrying qualities of the airplane. Flaps greatly vary the lift-drag characteristics of the wing, as is evidenced by the fact
that normal takeoffs are made with 20 ° of flaps,
that maximum lift and stability at slow cruising
speeds can be obtained with 5° to 9° of flaps,
and that 10°, 20°, and 40° of flaps effect successsively larger reductions in stalling speeds.
Armament
Propellers
Protective armor plate and guns are provided
at crew stations as shown in the accompanying
illustrations.
·
The 3-bladed propellers are Hamilton-Standard, hydromatic, full-feathering, controllable
pitch, constant-speed. Toggle switches on the
pilot's pedestal electrically control the governors which maintain the constant-speed feature. To operate the B-24 safely it is imperative
that pilots fully understand the principle of the
constant-speed propeller, its relationship to engine pressures (manifold pressure and brake
mean effective pressure) and know when and
when not to use the feathering feature.
Davis Wing
The B-24 wing is an internally braced, skinstressed type, tapered, with a high aspect ratio.
It is considered one of the most efficient airfoils ever developed and was a radical departure from airfoils in use when the Liberator
was designed. Its unusual efficiency accounts
90° ELEVA TJON
~
INDICATES APPROXIMATE AREA OF PROTECTION
Armament and Angles of Armor Protection Diagram B-24D
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23
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Ignition
Engines
Engine ignition is provided by 2 American
Bosch magnetos, mounted on the rear section
of each engine. Separate switches permit either
one or both magnetos to be operated on the
engine. Battery switches are on the copilot's
auxiliary switch panel. A master switch bar
located just above the magneto switches is
available for simultaneously shorting the primaries of all magnetos and for opening the battery circuit of the main electrical system.
The B-24 is equipped with 4 Pratt & Whitney
14-cylinder, twin-row radial, air-cooled engines
with internal single-stage, single-speed, enginedriven integral superchargers. Engines are
rated to produce up to a total of 4800 horsepower using Grade 100 fuel and takeoff power
settings.
Each of the 4 engines is equipped with a
turbo-supercharger to furnish compressed air
to the fuel induction system at sea-level pressure.
Cowl Flaps
Control Surfaces
Engine cooling is regulated by means of adjust. able cowl flaps which are controlled electrically
from the pilot's pedestal. The range of cow1 flap
control is from closed to 12¼ 0 to 30° open, depending on the model airplane.
Rudders, elevators and ailerons are equipped
with trim tabs (except left aileron) and are
fabric covered; ali other surfaces are metal covered.
Carburetors
Wing Flaps
On No. 42-41115 and subsequent aircraft the
Bendix Stromberg carburetor is replaced by
the Chandler Evans Co. (Ceco) carburetor.
The all-metal, Fowler-type wing flaps retract
into the wing center section trailing edge wells.
Maximum down travel is 40°.
THE ENGINES HAVE THE FOLLOWING ACCESSORIES
I
0
Electric Generator
2 Magnetos
Fuel Pump
Turbo - supercharger
Vacuum Pump
24
Electric Generator
2 Magnetos
Fuel Pump
Turbo• supercharger
Vacuum Pump
Electric Generator
2 Magnetos
Fuel Pump
Turbo -supercharger
Hydraulic Pump
Electric Generator
2 Magnetos
Fuel Pump
Turbo• supercharger
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72.
73.
7 4.
75.
Aileron Tab Control Wheel
RecQgnition Light Switches
Landing Gear Control Lever
Command Radio Transmitter Control
76.
77.
78.
79.
Wing Flap Control Lever
Parking Brake Handle
Emergency Bomb Release Handle
Controls Lock Handle
Box
BASE OF
CONTROL PEDESTAL
ABOVE INSTRUMENT
PANEL
80.
81.
82.
83.
26
Propeller Feathering Switches
Clock
Remote Indicating Compass
Magnetic Compass
�B-24 Pl LOT'S INSTRUMENTS AND CONTROLS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
Fluorescent Light Switches
24 Volt DC Fluorescent Light
Magnetic Compass Light Rheostat
IFF Radio Destroyer Switch
Bomb Doors Indicator
Bomb Release Indicator
Defroster Ducts
Pilot Director Indicator
Directional Gyro
Gyro Horizon
Radio Compass Indicator
Manifold Pressure Gages
Tachometers
Fuel Pressure Gages
Cylinder Temperature Gages
Chemical Release Switches
Ventilators
Rate-of-climb Indicator
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19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
3~.
36.
Airspeed Indicator
Turn and Bank Indicator
Altimeter
C-1 Automatic Pilot
Marker Beacon Indicator
Landing Gear Indicator Test Button
Flap Position Indicator
Landing Gear Indicator
Free Air Temperature Gage
Oil Pressure Gages
Oil Temperature Gages
Hydraulic Pressure Gages
Suction Gage
Inboard Brake Pressure Gage
Outboard Brake Pressure Gage
Defroster Controls
Propeller Governor Limit lights
Turbo Boost Selector
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
so.
51.
52.
53.
54.
Throttles
Propeller Feathering Circuit Breakers
Mixture Controls
Bomb Bay Fuel Transfer Switch
Booster Pump Switches
Engine Starter Switches
Oil Dilution Switches
Primer Switches
Anti-icer Control
Formation Lights Rheostat ·
Carburetor Air Temperature Gages
Main Storage Battery Switches
Heater and Defroster Switches
Oxygen Panels
Pilot's Wheel
Propeller Switches
lntercooler Shutter Switches
Pitot Heater Switch
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
Cowl Flap Switches
SCR 535 Power Switch
Throttle Friction Lock
SCR 535 Emergency Switch
De-icer Control
De-icer Pressure Gage
Emergency Ignition Switch Bar
Ignition Switches
Brake Pedals
Elevator Tab Control Wheel
Alarm Button
Passing Ligtit Switch
Navigation Light Switches
A C Inverter Switch
Rudder Tab Control Knob
Landing Light Switches
SCR 522 Control Box
25
�½' ARMOR PLATE
2½'· ARMOR GLASS
3/■" ARMOR PLATE
3/1' ARMOR PLATE
1/is' ARMOR PLATE ON SEAT
¼" ARMOR PLATE
¾' ARMOR PLATE
¾' ALUMINUM ALLOY
TWO .50 CAL. MG'S
250 RDS. AMN. EACH
DEFLECTOR PLATE
CONSOLIDATED NOSE TURRET
32F5800-3
TWO .50 CAL. MG'S
800 RDS. AMN. IN TURRET
CONSOLIDATED !AIL TURRET
32F5800-3
TWO .50 CAL. MG'S
800 RDS. AMN. IN TURRET
BRIGGS RETRACTABLE LOWER
BALL TURRET A-13
TWO .50 CAL. MG'S
1016 RDS. AMN. IN TURRET
MARTIN TOP TURRET 250 CE-5
TWO .50 CAL. MG'S
760 RDS. AMN. IN TURRET
Defensive Armament and Angles of Armor Protection-B24J
. ,--7.
(r' -T-"'--
·-~-r,,'-----1.' ,/.'
'
360°
TWO .50 CAL. MG'S
250 RDS. AMN. EACH
II°
~er~,
1016,R:'.
-----'\4F!J/p·
'I ·. IiC~~~
0\)
AMN.:
,k--~-
iM.
::u
______V_
CONSOLIDATED NOSE TURRET
32F5800-3
TWO .50 CAL. MG'S
800 RDS. AMN. IN TURRET
i
BRIGGS RETRACTABLE
LOWER .BALL TURRET A-13
TWO .50 CAL. MG'S
-
Cl
,r·•:i
_L_ _-_----i,-----i
:.:_:-_:,: --
0
MARTIN TOP TUR;;T ~
-250 CE-5
TWO .50 CAL. MG'S
760 RDS. AMN. IN TURRET
/
TURIR ..._
_J
I
•
\
/F''
r
,
\
lr'
-...........J;," --
.I
C~--~
4
5"
900
CONSOLIDATED TAIL TURRET
8
3
~~ ~ CAL. MG'S
800 RDS. AMN. IN TURRET
Angles of Fire-B24J
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PRESENTING THE B-24N
The new B-24N will soon be in operation in
many bases in the continental United States.
It incorporates a number of changes and new
features developed as a result of the airplane's
extensive combat experience.
The major difference in the exterior appearance of the B-24N is the single vertical stabilizer. Also, the new nose turret installation
is ball type. This change has cleaned up the
nose and greatly increased the pilot's forward
visibility.
The most important change in the inside, as
far as the pilot is concerned, is the relocation
of many of the switches. Also, some of the instruments and other equipment have been
moved.
The general flight characteristics of the
B-24N are basically the same as those of other
series, and stalling speeds are the same. The
principal difference is that in earlier B-24
airplanes the rudder does not give enough
directional control at low airspeeds (around
130 mph) with an outboard engine not working. In the B-24N, however, rudder control
is good enough to maintain straight flight with
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'
no yaw under these conditions. You can cruise
with two engines out on one side at airspeeds
of 150 to 155 mph and trim the airplane to fly
"hands off." This condition has been tested,
with No. 1 and No. 2 feathered and No. 3 ·and
No. 4 pulling nearly rated power.
The control pressures have been improved
making it much easier to hold the airplane
under unbalanced power conditions. The ruddeF pressures are now considerably lighter, and
aileron and elevator pressures have been lightened to a point where they are very satisfactory.
The B-24N is powered with four Pratt-Whitney, Model R-1830-75 engines, which allow
more horsepower for takeoff.
The takeoff, or turbo bypass, valve has been
added to the engines on the B-24N. The operation of this valve will require some study by
the pilot before he becomes proficient in its
use.
Generally speaking, the B-24N is much more
of a pilot's airplane and the average pilot will
find much l~ss difficulty when flying under
unbalanced power conditions.
27
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B-24N
\
INSTRUMENT PANEL
AND
CONJROL PEDESTAL
SECTION OF MAJOR .
CHANGES SHOWN
IN RED
FOR FURTHER DETAIL
CONSULT T. 0. AN 01 • 5 EF· 1
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As commander of a $250,000 airplane, you can
take nothing for granted. Satisfy yourself before every flight that your airplane is ready.
One careless oversight can mean the failure of
your mission. Think and act like an airplane
commander from the moment you approach
your airplane. This will inspire every member
of your crew to work that much harder to demonstrate proficiency at his station.
EXTERNAL VISUAL
INSPECTION
Your first act upon approaching the airplane is
to inspect the crew, making sure that every
man is properly equipped and ready for the
mission. After depositing your equipment in
the airplane, execute the external inspection.
Be businesslike and thorough. Keep in mind
30
that flying gravel, a passing vehicle or that last
hard landing may have weakened your airplane. You are double-checking to see that the
engineer has done his job properly.
DANGER
Never allow anyone, under any circumstances,
to walk through the propellers or between the
fuselage and propellers even though the engines
are not running. This is an ironclad rule that
every airplane commander is bound to observe
and enforce. If you are lax and set a bad example when there is no danger, it may someday
cost you an absent-minded crewman.
Sequence
The fastest, most efficient way to inspect your
airplane is to follow a definite, prescribed sequence every time. Always start at the right
side of the fuselage, proceed out along the right
wing and around its tip (to avoid walking
through the propellers) and continue .on around
the airplane to the starting point. This check
requires only 5 minutes.
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�;ID
m
"'
....
SEQUENCE FOR EXTERNAL CHECK
;ID
n
....
m
ii~:iit~i
0
Make certain that all ice and frost is removed from wings
before takeoff. The Davis airfoil is subiect to great loss
of lift with even a seemingly negligible amount of ice.
You risk mushing in on takeoff with load unless wings
are completely free of clear ice or frost-so make sure
-
w
they are clean!
I
•
'
)(
I
, , ...
;ID
m
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....
;ID
n
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0
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3. No. 3 Supercharger: Check for free movement of bucket wheel, alignment and warping
of buckets, and for missing or cracked buckets.
Check the exhaust section for cracks or loose
joints. Check the waste gate for full open position and free movement.
1. Fuel Cell Area: Inspect fuel cell area of
wing, between gear and fuselage, for security
of inspection plates and for leaks.
4. No. 3 Nacelle: Check for loose cowl fasteners or damage ..
5. No. 4 Supercharger: Same check as for
No. 3.
6. No. 4 Nacelle: Same check as for No. 3.
7. Right Aileron: Inspect aileron for condition of fabric. (Check trim tab for damage.)
2. Right Main Gear: Check for proper inflation, cuts or bruises, tire slippage, and rim
flange cracks. Oil leakage from the brake flange
area usually indicates a ruptured brake expander tube. Inspect hydraulic lines and fittings
for security and leaks, and check oleo strut for
3½-inch extension. Check down-latch in position and undamaged. Check point of suspension
of landing gear for cracks and buckling. A
faulty gear may let you down hard.
32
8. Right Outer Wing Panel and Running
Lights: Check condition of wing panels, and
check lights for breakage or dirt.
,.
9. Right Outboard De-icer Boot: Inspect for
cracks or damage.
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10. No. 4 Engine: Inspect nose section for oil
leaks or foreign matter wedged between cylinders. Check propeller for cracks, and anti-icer
slinger ring for security. Inspeqt propeller governor connections.
15. Nose Turret: Make sure that nose turret
is locked in forward position and free from
damage.
11. De-icer Boot Between Engines: Check
for cracks or damage.
12. No. 3 Engine: Same check as for No. 4.
16. Left Pitot Tube: Same check as for right
tube, to insure operation of pilot's airspeed indicator.
..
13. Right Inboard De-icer Boot: Check for
cracks or damage.
14. Right Pitot Tube: Check pitot head cover;
if it is not removed your bombardier's airspeed
indicator won't work. (New G-2 pitot-static
system has only one pitot tube, on lower left
side of the nose.)
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17. Fire Extinguisher: Open small access
door in fuselage on left side of nose and check
fire extinguisher for proper stowage. Reclose
door securely.
33
�I
"
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32. Left Wing Flap: Check flap for proper
alignment with trailing edge of wing, in full up
position and free from skin damage, holes, or
dents.
18. Nosewheel Assembly: Check tire for
proper inflation, cuts, bruises, blisters, excessive wear, and slippage. Have tire inspected at
once if it has slipped. Check oleo strut for 4¾inch extension. Pressure gage on shimmy
damper accumulator should read 250 lb. sq. in.
If it is a Houdaille type shimmy damper (which
has no accumulator), check the needle plunger
at top of damper assembly for 3/s to %-inch
extension. Check nose gear down-latch in the
down position. Check nose assembly hydraulic
lines and fittings for leaks.
19. Left Inboard De-icer Boot: Check for
cracks or damage.
20. No. 2 Engine: Same check as for No. 3.
21. De-icer Boot Between Engines: Check for
cracks or damage.
22. No. 1 Engine: Same check as for No. 2.
23. Left Outboard De-icer Boot: Check for
cracks or damage.
24. Left Outer Wing Panels and Running
Lights: Same check as for right wing-panels
for condition, lights for brea~age or dirt.
25. Left Aileron: Inspect for fabric condition.
26. No. 1 Nacelle: Same check as for No. 4.
27. No. I , Supercharger: Same check as for
No.4.
28. No. 2 Nacelle: Same check as for No. 1.
29. No. 2 Supercharger: Same check as for
No. 1.
30. Left Main Gear: Same check as for right
main gear.
31. Fuel Cell Area: Same check as for right
side.
34
33. Antenna: Check for security.
34. Ball Turret: Make sure turret is locked
in up position.
35. Tailskid: Check for full extension and
freedom from damage; check hydraulic fittings.
36. Left Waist Door Wind Deflector: Checksecurely closed.
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Reject the airplane if you discover unsafe defects,
and list all defects on Form 1A. Also report all
defects to your crew chief.
37. Left Tail Section: Check de-icer surfaces.
Check stabilizer surfaces for loose rivets and
buckling of plates. Check left fin, rudder, elevator, and trim tab for alignment and condition
of fabric.
38. Tail Turret: Check for alignment and
security.
39. Right Tail Section: Same check as for
left side.
40. Right Waist Door Wind Deflector: Check .
-securely closed.
41. Fire Extinguisher: .Check stowage of fire
extinguisher in fuselage position just aft of rear
bomb bay.
42. Right Wing Flap: Same check as for left
wing flap.
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You should have made a complete circuit of
the airplane without once walking through the
propellers. You are now ready to enter the
bomb bay for the internal inspection. Before·
you do, however, check one final item:
Pulling Through Engines: Check that each
engine has been pulled through 6 blades to
assure free turning of the engine and to detect
any oil or fuel in the combustion chambers
which would damage the engine.
Before the engineer approaches engines, check
the ignition switches and the master ignition
switch "OFF." See that the engineer stays clear
of the propeller plane of rotation. A broken
wire or a hot plug might cause a kickback and
serious injury.
35
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INTERNAL VISUAL
INSPECTION
The internal visual inspection is just as important as the external inspection. Keep your crew
conscious of the fact that you are vitally interested in the condition of every part of the airplane. Don't tolerate rubbish or improperly
stowed cargo or equipment. But be quick to
praise the well-kept airplane. Execute the interior inspection in the following sequence:
1. Rear Section of Fuselage: Upon entering
the bomb bay doors proceed to the rear and inspect location and anchoring of cargo, gear,
guns, and ammunition.
2. Hydraulic Reservoir: Check for leakage.
Should be filled to within ½ inch of red line on
reservoir gage, provided the accumulators are
!)roperly charged. Check hydraulic reservoir
emergency suction valve in horizontal position.
3. Emergency Hydraulic Star Valve: Check
in the closed position and safety wired .
•
.
.
4. Fuel Selector Valves: On your way to the
flight deck check each of the 4 fuel selector
valves set in tank-to-engine positions, i.e., No.
4 tank to No. 4 engine, No. 3 tank to No. 3
engine, etc., to make sure that each engine is
receiving fuel from its main fuel cells only. Two
of these valves are mounted inside the fuselage
on each side of the bomb bay overhead between
the wing spar and Station 4.2. (On late-model
planes, fuel selector valves are on the flight
deck.) The 2 valves on the right control the
flow to engines No. 3 and No. 4, and those on
the left control the flow to engines No. 1 and
No. 2, as numbered.
Caution: Should the 4 main tank selector
valves be Set at "l, 2, 3, and 4 TANK to No. 1,
36
2, 3, and 4 ENGINE and CROSSFEED," a
failure of any fuel line or the crossfeed manifold would result in a loss of both fuel and fuel
pressure. On takeoff this would be disastrous.
5. Fuel Sight Gages: As you enter the flight
deck, check the quantity of fuel aboard using
the gages on your left. Each gage is connected
by a 2-way valve to 2 of the 4 main fuel systems
as labeled. For gages to give an accurate reading, the inclinometer located outboard of the
gages must be centered.
0
Q
O
I
FULL GAUGES
READ CORRECTL'I'
~
WHEN INCLINOMETE~
BUBBLE CENTERED
OM LINE
~
FUEL SIGHT
GAGE AND
INCLINOMETER
6. Flight Deck: Check placing of gear, movable equipment secured in proper places, windows clean, etc.
7. Personnel: Satisfy yourself that all persons are aboard, are properly clothed for the
mission, are equipped with a parachute and
oxygen mask, and understand their use. Be
sure sealed first-aid kits are in their proper
locations. Make sure there is ample oxygen
aboard at all stations for the mission planned.
Check to see that all personnel know the emergency warning signals for bailout and ditching
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and the procedures to be followed, and that
they know their stations for takeoffs, flight and
landings. See that a loading or passenger list
has been sent to Operations if required.
8. Maps and Navigational Aids: Make sure
that necessary up-to-date maps, copies of instrument procedures, radio facility charts, radio
aids to navigation and direction-finding charts
are aboard.
rudder and brake control. The levers on the
seat permit adjustment fore and aft, up and
down, and tilt. To adjust rudder pedals, push
the pedal adj4stment lever away from the pedal
with the toe and move the pedal fore or aft. Be
sure the catch relocks properly.
9. Form lA: Before you accept the airplane,
study Form lA and note all defects, comments
of pilots and notations by crew chief of work
done on the airplane since the last flight.
10. Loading: Ascertain that the airplane is
properly loaded within the allowable center of
gravity (CG) limits by checking Form F m
"Weight and Balance Data" in the airplane.
12. Unlocking Controls: Copilot unlocks controls, securely stows the strap overhead so it
won't bang the pilot in the face, and checks the
locking lever in the full down position to make
sure the lock is released. Then you are ready to
start the checklist procedure.
11. Seating: After these things have been
accomplished, the pilot and copilot are ready to
get into their seats, fasten safety belts, and
adjust the seats and foot pedals to permit . full
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Wait: Is everyone aboard? Is all equipment
aboard? Is the fuel supply ample? It is always
embarrassing to have to return to the line, to
bail out without a parachute, or to arrive over
the target without your bomb load.
37
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No pilot (in his right mind) neglects the checklist in a 4-engine airplane. Your mission, your
airplane and your crew are too important for
half-measures. No pilot can ignore the checklist
on flight after flight without getting into serious
trouble. A big-shot attitude toward the checklist is risky and sets a bad example for your
copilot and your crew. To old-time B-24 pilots,
who have been through the mill, the checklist
is as vital a piece of equipment as the rudders
or the flaps.
Approved Checklist Technique
Develop a professional teamwork technique in
using the checklist so·that you and your copilot
are double-checking each other all the time.
Require complete cooperation from your copilot and engineer. Sloppy crew work is usually
a direct reflection.of the attitude of the airplane
commander. Following is approved checklist
technique:
1. Pilot calls, "Checklist!"
2. Copilot picks up the checklist and holds it
throughout the procedure.
3. Copilot calls out each checklist item in
38
sequence, in a loud, clear voice, and indexes the
list with thumb or finger to be sure nothing is
omitted.
4. Pilot, copilot or engineer makes a positive
check of the item when it is called out and calls
back the answer.
Never start on the next checklist point until
the preceding one is completed, or the resu!t
will be confusion and omissions. Believe and
practice this. Don't wait for bitter experience to
prove it. Never say "Okay" without checking.
Sloppy use of the checklist is responsible for
more emergencies than almost any other form
of pilot error.
Snap Into It
Get some snap into the checklist procedures.
Alert, professional cockpit work with items
called off and answered in clear, ringing tones
will lift the spirits of your crew and get them
on the ball just as a good quarterback's signals
bring his team to life.
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4. Copilot: "PITOT COVERS?"
BEFORE
STARTING ENGINES
Each pilot looks at the pitot head on his .side
of the airplane to be sure the pitot covers
have been removed.
Pilot: "Removed left!'
Copilot: "Removed right!"
Following are the cockpit duties and checklist
points for the before-starting check.
Amplified Checklist
1. Copilot: "FORM 1 A?"
Pilot: "Form IA checked!"
Pilot's reply indicates that he has completed
the required preflight inspection of Form lA.
2. Copilot: "LOADING?"
5. Copilot: "GAS TANK CAPS?"
Security of caps is vitally important. If a gas
tank cap isn't properly seated, gas may be
syphoned out by the suction on top of the
wing, rapidly emptying your tanks. Some of
this gas will usually run back through the
wing into the bomb bay, creating a dangerems fire hazard.
Engineer: "Gas tank caps checked!"
Pilot: "Loading checked!"
Pilot's reply indicates that he has completed
the preflight requirements for proper loading.
6. Copilot: "FLIGHT CONTROLS?"
Pilot and engineer check all controls. Engineer puts his head out the flight deck escape
hatch to watch control surfaces. The pilot
moves controls to extreme positions calling
out each set as he operates them.
3. _Copilot: "WHEEL CHOCKS?"
Each pilot checks the chock on his side.
Chocks should not be against the tire but
should be 2 to 6 inches forward of the wheel.
Parking brakes will normally hold the airplane. Chocks may become jammed under
the tires if placed against them.
Pilot: "Wheel chock in place left!"
Copilot: "Wheel chock in place right!"
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Pilot: "Controls checked visually!"
Example: As the pilot moves the wheel full
back he calls out, "Elevators," and the engineer replies, "Elevators up." As the pilot
moves the wheel full forward the engineer
calls out, "Elevators dowri." The check continues: "Rudders"-"Rudders right," . . .
"Rudders left," ... "Rudders neutral,"-"Ailerons" -"Right aileron down, Left aileron
up," ... "Right aileron up, left aileron down."
39
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10. Copilot: "MAIN LINE AND BATTERY
SELECTORS?"
7. Copilot: "FUEL TANK VALVES
AND AMOUNT?"
Engineer: "Checked ... (number) gallons of
gas and ... (number) gallons of oil aboard."
Copilot turns on these switches and checks
each battery selector separately by referring
to the voltmeter reading to determine the
battery condition. If the battery cart is used
to start engines, turn on the main line switch
but leave the battery selectors off. This directs current from the battery cart through
the main line bus and prevents drain of the
plane's batteries.
Copilot: "Main line and battery selectors
on!"
0
0
8. Copilot: "GENERATORS?"
Copilot and engineer look back to check
generators in "OFF" position. Generators are
kept off until just before takeoff to prevent
drain of battery current back to generator in
case of faulty reverse current relay and because generators will not charge unless rpm
is 1700 or more.
Engineer: "Generators off!"
9. Copilot: "CARBURETOR AIR FILTERS?"
In absence of dust and blowing sand, carburetor air filters are always kept closed. Engineer sets them as directed for local conditions.
Engineer: "Carburetor filters (as required)."
40
11. Copilot: "AUXILIARY POWER UNIT
AND HYDRAULIC PUMP?"
The engineer starts the auxiliary power unit
and turns on the hydraulic pump. The pump
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cuts in to charge accumulators when the
pressure drops below 975 lb. and cuts out
at 1180 lb. W;hen No. 3 engine is operating,
the engine-driven pump charges accumulators through the unloading valve when pressure drops below 850 lb., and cuts out at
1050 lb.
Heintz indicators must be uncaged and manually righted after engines are started.)
Pilot: "Gyros uncaged."
Engineer: "Auxiliary power unit and hydraulic pump on."
,
-0
\ \i•
ICIOI / .,,
,, 2000:
HYDRAULIC
PRESSURE
0
IN'BD BRAKE
PRESSURE
OUT'BO BRAKE
PRESSURE
12. Copilot: "BRAKE a:-RESSURE AND
PARKING BRAKE?"
The pilot applies the brakes, checks the inboard and outboard brake pressure gages at
975 lb. to 1180 lb. and sets the parking brake.
14. Copilot: "AUTOMATIC PILOT?"
Pilot checks all switches on the automatic
pilot in "OFF" position. If you attempt a takeoff with this unit connected, it is extremely
difficult to overpower it.
Pilot: "Automatic pilot off!"
Pilot: "Pressure checked and parking brake
on!"
To set the brake, hold the brake pedals down,
raise the parking brake handle and then release the brake pedals. Never force the
handle either up or down or you will -snap
the locking pin.
13. Copilot: "GYROS?"
Pilot uncages the directional gyro and the
flight indicator. Then, when the engine that
provides suction is started (No. 1 or 2), the
speed with which the flight indicator rights
itself indicates its reliability. (Note: Jack and
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15. Copilot: "SUPERCHARGERS?"
Pilot checks all superchargers in "OFF" position. Superchargers should have been left
off when the engines were last stopped so
that waste gates are open. If waste gates are
closed when you start the engines, the exhaust system or the turbo may be damaged
by the excessive exhaust pressure. With electronic turbo control, set dial at zero.
Pilot: "Superchargers off!"
41
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pump and noting a rise in fuel pressure on
the corresponding fuel pressure gage. He
then flicks off the booster pump, moves the
AC switch to neutral, switches to No. 1 inverter and again uses the booster pump
check.
Copilot: "AC power on and checked!"
16. Copilot: "PROPELLERS?"
Copilot holds propeller toggle switches forward to "INCREASE" rpm. If governor limit
lights come on, propeller governors are set
for full high rpm.
Use the No. 1 inverter and save No. 2 as an
alternate, emergency position. It is bad practice to switch back and forth between inverters.
Note: On some late series aircraft an automatic change-over relay is installed which
switches from No. 1 to No. 2 inverter if No. 1
fails, and a red light on the instrument panel
warns you that No. 1 is dead. The toggle
switch is still used for checking inverters.
Copilot: "Props in high rpm!"
Caution: Be sure to move toggle switches
forward; governor limit lights will also come
on when toggle switches are moved back,
and this would set the governor for full
low rpm.
17. Copilot: "ALARM BELL?"
Pilot gives the normal abandon-ship signal,
listening for the bell himself as he does so,
and each crew member replies by interphone
that he has heard the bell.
19. Copilot: "INTERCOOLERS?"
Copilot checks intercooler shutters in open
position which is normal.
Copilot: "Intercoolers open."
18. Copilot: "AC POWER SWITCH"
Copilot moves this switch to No. 2 inverter
and checks it by switching on one booster
42
There is no advantage in closing intercooler
shutters. If closed, they may cause overheating and detonation on takeoff. Check the
proper operation of shutters by listening to
each motor while moving switches to closed
and back to open positions. If the motors cannot be heard, the engineer or a member of the
ground crew should check shutters in opera. tion, checking them in the open position.
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20. Copilot: "PITOT HEATER?"
Copilot flicks switch on and off while looking
back at voltmeter for a flicker indicating
current drain. The only accurate check is
for the engineer to feel the pitot tube heat
during his preflight.
Engineer: "Pitot heaters checked!"
23. Copilot: "WING FLAPS?"
Copilot checks that the flap control handle is
in the neutral position and that the flap indicator shows flaps are up.
Copilot: "Wing flaps up!"
21. Copilot: "COWL FLAPS?"
Copilot opens them and checks them on the
right while the pilot checks them on the left.
Cowl flaps are open while starting to help
keep the engine cool and to facilitate putting
out fires from the outside.
Caution: Never close cowl flaps to hurry
warm-up because this will damage the· ignition harness, especially at the spark plug
elbows, by excessive heating.
1,-•1ew111
Pilot: "Cowl flaps open left!"
Copilot: "Cowl flaps open right!"
22. Copilot: "MIXTURE CONTROLS?"
Copilot checks mixture controls forward in
"IDLE CUT-OFF." Otherwise blower section will be flooded when booster pumps are
turned on, creating a fire hazard and making
starting difficult.
Copilot: "Mixtures in idle cut-off!"
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24. Copilot: "WING DE-ICERS; PROPELLER
AND CARBURETOR ANTI-ICERS?"
Copilot checks each in "OFF" position. Thi~
is vital. Even partial inflation of the wing
de-icer boots reduces lift and increases the
stalling speed. When on, propeller anti-icers
will pump fluid on the ground an~ carburetor
anti-icers (if so equipped) will pump fluid
into the carburetors, enriching the mixture.
Note-If exhaust heat anti-icing is installed,
the cabin heat or anti-icing switches may be
on if desired.
Copilot: "All de-icers and anti-icers off!"
As soon as the before-starting check is completed,
you are ready to start engines.
43
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STARTING ENGINES
Step-by-step prec1s10n in starting engines is
the mark of a top-notch military pilot. There
is a best way to do everything. Learn and perfect the best starting procedure and it will help
to eliminate errors. Use the checklist procedure.
It is the airplane commander's responsibility
to see that engineer and ground crew understand the standardized precautions for starting
engines. These require one man posted as fire
guard at the engine being started and a second
man in view of personnel in the ~ockpit to relay
signals t? the fire guard.
nally, start in sequence 1, 2, 3, 4, to keep the
ground-crew man safely clear of propellers.
2. Copilot: "IGNITION 4 SWITCHES?"
Copilot turns on the ignition switches for all
4 engines.
Copilot: "Ignition switches all on!"
Amplified Checklist
1. Copilot: Call "CLEAR!" Fire Guard Posted
Copilot and pilot stick their h~ads out of their
windows to check personnel and shout,
"Clear!" Copilot checks that a fire guard is
posted and holds UP, three fingers to indicate
that he will start No. 3 engine first.
Copilot: "All clear and guard posted!"
Start engines in sequence 3, 4, 2, 1, to keep
guard from running through an outboa:r:d
prop in case of fire and because the enginedriven hydraulic pump operates off No. 3
engine. When engines are energized exter44
r
3. . Copilot: "THROTTLES?"
Pilot moves all throttles to cracked position,
approximately 1/3 open. This prevents excessive backfiring and overspeeding of engine
on starting.
Pilot: "Throttles cracked!"
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�RES T R I CT Eo·
switches for energizing and meshing. Move first
switch up to "ACCEL" to energize for 12 seconds and keep it there while you move the
second switch to "MESH." Thus the energizing
continues during the cranking or meshing.
Some nameplates are marked "CRANK" instead of "MESH."
4. Copilot: "BOOSTER PUMP?"
Copilot turns the booster pump on for the
engine to be started to supply fuel pressure
for priming and notes pressure, usually
.about 8 lb.
Copilot: "Booster pump on!"
1111
Old Type
N0.1
N0.1
N0.3
~
~
~
~
ACCEL.
MESH
ACCEL.
MESH
(it)
@.
~
~
N0.3
~!@~ ,!:'·~!' ·~
NO. 2
ACCEL.
0
N0.2
MESH
~
New Type
5. Copilot: "START ENGINES."
a. While priming with one hand, copilot energizes starter with the other hand for required
number of seconds.
b. Copilot meshes starter and holds it meshed
until the engine is definitely started because
the booster coil or induction vibrator is
hooked up to the meshing switch. If t e engine
doesn't start immediately, use more priming.
c. As soon as the engine fires, the pilot brings
mixture control back to ''AUTO-RICH" and
leaves it there.
d. Copilot turns the booster pump off.
Priming
Engine may be primed when fuel pressure is
above 4 lb. Copilot primes by pressing the
primer switch for one second and then releas- ·
ing it. The number of one-second shots will
normally be not less than 3 nor more than 6
depending on the temperature of the engine
and the outside air. This drives the fuel into
the engine intake in spurts. Do the priming
while you are energizing.
e. Copilot watches the oil pressure gage and
calls out, "Oil pressure coming up," if it is.
If oil pressure does not rise within 30 seconds, copilot puts mixture control in "IDLE
CUT-OFF" and stops the engine. During the
first 30 seconds of firing hold rpm as low as
possible.
Copilot: "No. 3 started."
(Successive engines are started in the same
manner.)
Two Types of Starters
Warm-Up
Energizing time will vary with the 2 types of
starters in use on B-24's. The old type requires
30 seconds. Switch is moved up to "START"
for energizing and down to "MESH." Energizing stops when the switch is on "MESH."
In the new-type starter there are separate
Throughout the warm-up and other grounu
operations, when not actually taxiing, idle the
engines at 1000 rpm. Warm-up should continue
until the oil temperature indicators for all engines reach 40°C, minimum, and until cylinderhead temperatures reach 120°C.
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45
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BEFORE TAXIING
6. Copilot: "FLIGHT INDICATOR?"
When No. 2 or No. 1 engine (whichever is
supplying the vacuum) is started, pilot
checks the speed and precision with which
the flight indicator rights itself. If righting
action is sluggish, the instrument needs repair. (Note: Jack and Heintz Flight Indicators Model JH 6500 must be left caged until
the engine has been running for 5 minutes to
allow rotor to gain full speed. Then uncage
and check to see that it does not spill.)
If an Engine Stops
If an engine stops, immediately put mixture
control in "IDLE CUT-DFF" and repeat entire
starting procedure. If the propeller starts turning when you re-energize, release the energizing switch and cut the ignition switch "OFF."
Then have a crew. member rock the propeller
to disengage the. starter dogs.
If an Engine Is Flooded
If an engine becomes flooded, put the mixture
control in "IDLE CUT-OFF" and open throttle
fully until excess gasoline is cleared out and the
engine begins to fire. Then immediately retard
the throttle to % open and move mixture control to "AUTO-RICH."
If an Engine Won 1 t Mesh
If an engine won't mesh or crank, and you want
manual meshing, notify the man in front of the
airplane by raising a clenched fist and pulling
sharply downward. He will use the same signal
to notify the fire guard who will then pull the
manual meshing handle. The mesh switch on the
copilot's panel should be used when meshing
manually, even though it is apparently not
working, since it also completes the circuit to
the booster coil or induction vibrator.
When all engines are started and warmed up,
you are ready to begin the before-taxiing check.
46
Amplified Checklist
Make a careful check before you start taxiing
to make sure your engines, instruments, and
radio are operating properly. All of the readings given below are maximum and minimum
limits based on rpm of 1000.
'
1. Copilot: "ALL INSTRUMENTS?"
Directional gyro. Pilot pushes caging knob
to caged position, spins and quickly uncages.
Indicator should stop moving when uncaged.
If it continues to spin, gyro requires repair.
Try it both ways, left and right.
Pilot: "Directional gyro checked!"
Copilot checks the following:
'
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:
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.,
a. Manifold Pressure. Check for steady indication. Erratic reading indicates defective instrument.
b. Tachometer. Check for steady indication
at 1000 rpm.
c. Fuel Pressure. Should read 16 to 18 lb.
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position; if it kicks out, the free-flow system
is operating properly.
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11
d. Oil Pressure. Should read 45 to 100 lb.
Low reading may indicate oil shortage or
pump failure.
e. Oil Temperature. Limits are 40 ° to 100°C.
Desired range is 60 ° to 75°C.
i. Gear Warning Light. Should be lighted.
j. Free Air Temperature. Check against temperature you obtained in the weather office.
You'll need this gage to anticipate icing conditions.
£. Cylinder-Head Temperature. Limits are
120° to 232 °C for ground operation. Do not
operate above 1000 rpm until head temperature is 120°c or more.
k. Compass. Check deviation card-in place
and up to date.
Copilot: "All instruments checked!"
g. Carburetor Air Temperature. If there is
high humidity, ice may form during ground ,.
operation if carburetor air temperature is
below 15°C. Best operating limits are between 15°C and 35 °C. Above 35°C there is
likely to be detonation.
\\,·,I ! I/ I
,,,"\\6/1///
-~2
~
S
%0
/I/
-z· ·
■l¾wM
■ilffil~■
h. Hydraulic Brake Accumulator Pressure.
Check inboard and outboard gages indicating between 975 to 1180 lb. Don't start taxiing if either gage falls below 950 lb.
For an additional check on the hydraulic system, put the flap control handle in the "UP"
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~
-s-::::
TION
f
\\''
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10
2. Copilot: "VACUUM?"
Engineer calls out No. 1 or No. 2 engine,
(whichever is supplying vacuum). Pilot
checks his gage and, if gage registers between
3. 75 and 4.25, calls "Checked." Engineer turns
the vacuum selector valve to the other engine
and the procedure is repeated. Valve should
be turned to No. 2 after the check is completed.
Pilot: "Vacuum checked on Nos. 1 and 2!"
47
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Note: If the airplane is equipped with electronic turbo control, always keep the dial set
at zero for taxiing.
3. Copilot: "RADIO, ALTIMETER, TIME."
Copilot calls the tower for radio check,
altimeter setting and correct time. ·
ALWA VS USE AUTO-RICH FOR ALL
GROUND OPERATION
'
a. Radio check has three elements: (1) Frequency: on frequency, or one or more kilocycles low or high; (2) Readability, R ... 1 to
5; (3) Signal strength, S ... 1 to 5. Desired
check is "On frequency, R5, S5."
TAXIING
Copilot: "Radio checked!"
b. Altimeter setting. Pilot sets altimeter at
barometric pressure and notes difference between altimeter reading and actual field altitude. Maximum error permissible is 50 to
75 feet. Pilot then re-sets altimeter at actual field elevation and notes error in barometric reading. Thus, if the · tower gives a
reading of 29.20 but altimeter reads 29.25
when set at correct field elevation, .05 should
be added to any barometric reading obtained
during the flight. As a rule-of-thumb guide
only, .01 difference in barometric reading
equals 10 feet altitude.
Pilot: "Altimeter set."
c. Time. Copilot checks cockpit clock time
against tower report.
Copilot: "Time checked."
4. Copilot: "WHEEL CHOCKS?"
Pilot and copilot look out their windows to
check chocks removed.
Pilot: "Wheel chock removed left!"
Copilot: "Wheel chock removed right!"
48
Nothing makes a pilot and his crew feel more
foolish than a taxiing accident that does several thousand dollars worth of damage. Clumsy
taxiing imposes severe strains on the nose gear,
main gear, tires and other parts of the airplane,
and negligence in taxiing will not be tolerated.
Smooth, skillful taxiing technique is a must
for 4-engine aircraft. When all checklist items
through "Before Taxiing" are completed, and
you have radio approval from the tower, you
are ready to start taxiing. Check to make certain that your seat is well forward so that you
are in a position for full rudder and brake
control.
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Position of Feet
The position of your feet is important. Set your
heels on the rudder pedals with your toes well
up above the brake pedals. Always keep your
toes off the brake pedals when not using the
brakes. Only slight pressure will build up tremendous friction and heat. Save your brakes for
emergencies when you'll need them!
POSITION OF FEET WHEN USING RUDDER
turned, allow the airplane to roll a short distance in the direction it is turned and it will
tend to straighten itself out. Don't force the airplane straight ahead with power and brake
against a turned nosewheel.
POSITION OF FEET WHEN USING BRAKES
Use of Rudder
When learning to taxi, hold rudders neutral
because rudder control is ineffective except at
excessive speeds. Also, when you are holding
full rudder, right or left, it is difficult to use
the brakes effectively. Ask your copilot to help
hold rudders neutral and to check the neutral
position as you taxi.
Safety Observer
Post the engineer as observer with his head out
the flight deck escape hatch to observe obstructions and signal "Clear left" and "Clear right."
See that a ground-crew man is at each wingtip
when taxiing in congested areas.
Be sure the nosewheel is straight. I£ turned
more than 30 °, it should be straightened with a
bar. If you start taxiing with th~ nosewheel
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Results of Taxiing into Turned Nosewheel
To Start Moving
Reduce power to idling, fully depress the brake
pedals and release the parking brake handle.
Then follow it up by hand to make sure it is
released. Advance all throttles slowly and evenly until the airplane starts to roll. Don't use
excessive power, and, as soon as the airplane
is in motion, reduce the power.
Use of Throttles
All 4 throttles are spring loaded, tending to
hold higher rpm than idling. It is usually necessary to hold back pressure on the throttles to
49
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keep from overspeeding. Throttles tend to creep
forward unevenly at low power settings. Frequently check the tachometer to maintain uniform power settings on all engines. Then you
won't have to hold brakes against an overspeeding outboard engine to maintain directional control.
An expert at taxiing the B-24 can control it
with throttles alone and without brakes. You
can maintain speed equal to a brisk walk with
700 to 800 rpm on hard surfaces. If the airplane
is easing to the right, add power to the right
outboard engine but don't hold this power
until the airplane swings back in line or it will
swing past the desired point. Then you will
have to add power on the left outboard and so
on, building up excessive speed and S-ing.
Develop an expert throttle touch.
The best way to hold throttles is palm down
with the throttle knobs against the padded part
of the palm, third finger-joints on top of
throttles and fingers curled over them. The object is to be able to control any throttle separately.
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Turns
The B-24 is a big airplane. Get a mental picture
of its radius of turn. The main gear at the inside of the turn is the turning point and it is far
aft of your position in the pilot's seat. Your
natural tendency is to turn too soon because
you feel yourself going past the turning point.
On a left turn the pilot should watch the inside wheel; on a right turn the copilot should
watch the inside wheel.
Note: You are controlling 20 to 30 tons of
airplane and there is a delay between the application of power and the reaction of the airplane. Think and act ahead of the airplane and
anticipate its delayed reactions.
How to Turn
If the airplane is rolling at proper taxiing speed,
no brakes are necessary to start the turn.
Smoothly apply power to the outside engine to
start the turn and remove power as soon as the
airplane responds. Don't use excessive power.
It is better to use too little throttle and then
add more than to start too fast a turn and have
to corr~ct with the opposite outboard engine.
so
R E S-T R I C T E D
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-- ' -~
- -
=-
--
- ---
WATCH THE INSIDE WHEEL
ON TURNS
Don't Pivot
This produces ·a seesawing action. If you build
up excessive speed or turning action, throttle
back, get control with the brakes and start over.
Don't take a chance on dropping your airplane
in a mudhole.
.. __ ..._,
-- ... '
~
RIGHT
KEEP THE INSIDE
WHEEL ROLLING
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The most common error in turning is to pivot
the airplane sharply. Don't brake the inside
wheel to a stop and then pivot around it. This
grinds the tire against the ground or cement,
twisting the ply and weakening the tire.
'
WRONG
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51
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Before starting to turn, when stopped, be
especially careful to pick up forward motion
and then to keep the inside wheel rolling steadily throughout the turn. Do not make shortradius turns because the nosewheel should
never be turned more than 30° from the center
line.
Bank-and-turn Indicator
plane. This will vary with the speed of the airplane and the distance available for stopping.
As the airplane slows, release brake pressure
gradually. If you hold a constant pressure the
nose will snub down sharply, causing a jerky
stop. With proper use of the brakes, you can
bring the airplane to a full stop with no snubbing of the nose. Save the· tremendous reserve
power of your brakes for emergencies.
During turns while taxiing, make sure that the
turn indicator is functioning properly, returns
to neutral when the turn is completed and is
not sluggish.
Use of Brakes
Brakes should be applied with a smooth, steady
build-up of toe pressure. Sudden application
of the brakes slams the nose down, puts heavy
strain on the nose and main gear assemblies,
and may damage the brake expander tubes.
Require your copilot to check the accumulator pressure every 30 seconds and report
"Pressure O.K." or "Pressure below 800 lb."
If pressure drops below 800 lb., stop the airplane in its tracks and don't move it until the
trouble is corrected. Always taxi with the auxiliary hydraulic pump on. It should cut in when
pressure gets below 975 lb. and should maintain pressure at 975 to 1180 lb.
Stopping
Always hold the airplane straight ahead when
stopping so the nosewheel will be in the
straight-ahead position. Apply sufficient brake
pressure evenly to both brakes to slow the air-
. 52
It Takes a Lot of Room
The B-24 has 110 feet of wing span, as much as
3 P-40's taxiing wingtip to wingtip. Give it a
lot of room.
Note: Taxi with all 4 engines running. If
one propeller is feathered, the opposite engine
may be cut for easier taxiing- but in no other
case should engines be cut.
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ENGINE RUN-UP BEFORE TAKEOFF
Every airplane has its own peculiarities and its
own personality. This is especially true i11 time
of war when series, equipment, and number
of hours in the air vary widely from plane to
plane. The engine run-up before takeoff is your
opportunity to feel out your airplane, judge its
condition and note its peculiarities.
The B-24 blows a big breeze. Don't run up
on the line unless local rules require it. Taxi
to a point well clear of the takeoff runway
(from which you can observe incoming traffic),
and stop with the nosewheel lined up straight
ahead. Fully depress the brake pedals, lift the
parking brake handle to the locked position ( do
not force it), and release the brake pedals. This
:,hould lock the parking brakes. Set all throttles
at 1000 rpm and faithfully follow checklist procedures during run-up.
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Crew Positions For Takeoff and Landing
ilf~ t
EMPTY
EMPTY
~-?
EMPTY
(REAR OF WAIST WINDOW)
Be sure your crew know their positions for
takeoff. No one should be in the nose compartment because of the danger of injury if the
nosewheel should collapse. No one should be
aft of the waist gunner positions because this
materially changes the center of gravity and
causes tail heaviness. No one should be in the
bomb bay.
53
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Usual positions: Pilot, copilot, engineer, radio
operator, navigator and bombardier on flight
deck; gunners just aft of bulkhead No. 6.
Crew should not shift from their positions
until the airplane is clear of the field and gear
and flaps are up. At least one man in the rear
compartment will be on interphone during
taxiing, takeoffs and landings.
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'
BEFORE-TAKEOFF CHECK
Amplified Checklist
*1. Copilot: "TRIM TABS?"
3. Copilot:
Pilot sets these as desired (normally 2° to
3° right rudder, elevators 1 ° to 2° up, and
ailerons at 0°. The right rudder trim corrects
for torque during takeoff.
Pilot: "Trimmed for takeoff!"
,
"EXERCISE PROPELLERS, TURBO-
SUPERCHARGERS AND FLAPS!"
Pilot sets all throttles at 1500 rpm. Then copilot changes propeller governors from full
high rpm to full low rpm and back, holding
governor switches until propellers change all
the way ( all governor limit lights on at each
extreme position); the pilot advances superchargers slowly and retards them slowly several times. This moves warm oil through the
propeller dome assembly and to the supercharger regulators, assures adequate lubrication of the .turbo wheel shaft bearings, and
clears the balance lines for proper waste gate
operation. At the same time the coP,ilot runs
the flaps all the way down and back up,
checking against the flap indicator. Then the
pilot retards throttles to 1000 rpm.
Pilot: "Turbo-superchargers exercised!"
Copilot:, "Propellers and flaps exercised!"
IT, IS NOT NECESSARY
TO EXERCISE
ELECTRON IC SU PE RC HARGERS
*4. Copilot: "PROPELLERS?"
*2. Copilot: "MIXTURES?"
Copilot checks to see that all are in "AUTORICH." Danger: Don't take off in "AUTOLEAN" because there is danger of detonation
or engine failure.
Copilot: "Mixtures in auto-rich!"
*ITEMS
54
WITH
ASTERISK
FOR
SUBSEQUENT
Copilot double checks to see that propellers
are left in high rpm because governor limit
lights also come on when propellers are in
low rpm.
Copilot: "Propellers in high rpm!"
TAKEOFF.
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5. Copilot: "RUN UP ENGINES!"
Run up engines in the following order: 4, 3,
2, 1. Pilot advances No. 4 throttle until the
propellers reach 2000 rpm and copilot checks
all engine instruments. Copilot checks magnetos at signal from the pilot. Technique:
(a) Check tachometer for steady reading on
"BOTH." (b) Turn ignition switch to "LEFT
MAGNETO" and hold 3 to 5 seconds. Note
any drop in rpm (maximum allowable drop
is 100 rpm). (c) Switch back to "BOTH" and
hold until rpm is steady. (d) Switch to
"RIGHT MAGNETO" and check same as
right. (e) Switch back to "BOTH" and leave
there.
During magneto check pilot should watch
engine nacelle for excessive vibration.
Note: Where takeoffs are being made frequently, clearing out the engines may be substituted for the full run-up procedure on subsequent checks. If takeoffs are infrequent, make a
complete run-up each time. In either case, make
the magneto check for all subsequent takeoffs.
Copilot: "Magnetos checked!"
rately by advancing throttle to full open position. Then turn dial of turbo boost selector
clockwise to the desired position (''8" with
Grade 100 fuel). If the manifold pressure on
any engine fails to come up to within 1" of takeoff pressure, with full high rpm, turn dial to
zero and check engine rpm and manifold pressure without turbo boost. This will show
whether the low manifold pressure is caused
by faulty engine operation or by insufficient
turbo boost. Also check the voltage with generators on. If batteries are low, leave the generator of the engine you are checking on during
run-up to insure proper turbo operation.
After checking an engine, return the dial to
zero before retarding the throttle. After you
have checked all engines, set the dial to desired
position for takeoff (''8" with Grade 100).
Caution: When using electronic supercharger
control, always be sure generators are on and
operating for takeoff.
Pilot: "NO. 4 RUN-UP COMPLETED!"
(Repeaf the run-up operation for engines 3,
2, and 1.)
Run-up With Oil Regulated Turbo Control
DON'T INADVERTENTLY LEAVE THE IGNITION
SWITCH ON LEFT OR RIGHT MAGNETOS.
Run-up Procedure With Electronic Turbo Control
When using the electronic turbo control, set
the propeller governors in high rpm, and check
the manifold pressure on each engine sepaR EST RIC TED
Pilot advances throttle fully open, holding it
there with his right hand while he advances
the supercharger control with his left hand until manifold pressure starts to increase. Precaution: This is the most sensitive point in supercharger ".regulation. Hesitate briefly to allow
the turbo surge to balance out and to avoid ini55
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tial excessive manifold pressure. As the manifold pressure climbs and stops, move the supercharger control slowly open and you should
get a direct, smooth increase to the desired
manifold pressure.
When using Grade 91 fuel with the oil regulated turbo control, the spring-loaded stops on
the control levers do not allow sufficient travel
to give the extra manifold pressure needed in
an emergency. (This is in contrast to Grade 100
fuel.) To be on the safe side, use your finger
for an additional spacer to provide the necessary travel.
Note: Carburetor Air Filters
When carburetor air filters are being used to
overcome dust conditions, air normally taken
in through the airscoop in the engine cow1 is
blocked off and air is taken through the filter,
at the back of the nacelle. Friction and tlie
elimination of ram pressure lowers the pressure
of filtered air going to the superchargers. When
not using filters, set superchargers 1.5" Hg. below desired manifold pressure to allow for intake ram as speed increases during takeoff.
When using the filter, use desired takeoff set- .
ting with no allowance for ram.
The turbo wheels have to turn faster to offset
the loss of pressure through the filters. Turn
the filters off as soon as you are out of the dust
area (never leave them on above 12,000 feet)
because there is a possibility of exceeding turbo
wheel speed limits.
*6. Copilot: "LOCK SUPERCHARGERS!'·'
Pilot sets frietion lock so that levers may be
readily moved but will not creep back from
vibration. Remember that the throttle and
supercharger locks are in reality friction
brakes and should be trea~ed as such. Friction lock applies to oil regulated turbo control only.
Pilot: "Superchargers set ;,ind locked!"
FLAP
P,~ITION
-~
~
~~D
..._
40
I \
*8. Copilot: "WING FLAPS?"
Copilot runs wing flaps down to 20 ° position.
Copilot: "Wing flaps 20 °!"
*9. Copilot: "FLIGHT CONTROLS?"
To check full travel and freedom of movement, pilot moves controls to full forward
·and right on the wheel, right rudder; then
moves them to full back and left on the
wheel, left rudder.
Pilot: "Controls checked for full travel and
free movement!"
*10. Copilot: "DOORS AND HATCHES?"
Engineer closes doors and hatches.
Engineer: "Doors and hatches closed!"
*7. Copilot: "GYROS?"
Pilot makes a final check, noting any precession since taxiing from the line, and re-sets
for takeoff.
Pilot: "Gyros uncaged and set!"
*ITEMS
56
WITH
ASTERISK
FOR
SUBSEQUENT
*11. Copilot: "COWL FLAPS?"
Copilot closes them to trail position.
Copilot: "Cowl flaps at trail!"
TAKEOFF.
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See that cowl flaps are all closed the same. If
open too much, they will cause loss of lift,
increased drag, and severe flutter of the ·tail
surfaces. It is better to have cowl flaps completely closed than too far open. Engines may
idle at 1000 rpm. for a reasonable time with
cowl flaps closed and not heat up. Don't take
off if a head temperature is less than 150 °C
or more than 232 °C. Desired level is 205 °C.
Note: Each degree of cowl flap opening produces .8 mph loss of speed.
BOOSTER PUMPS BOOSTER PUMPS
N0.1
N0.2
N0.3.
N0.4
~
(r)
(r)
~
*13. Copilot: "AUXILIARY HYDRAULIC PUMP
AND POWER UNIT?"
Engineer shuts these off to eliminate a fire
hazard on takeoff. The auxiliary hydraulic
pump is the only open-brush motor in the
bomb bay and the cooling fan tends to draw
any gas fumes into the motor.
Engineer: "Auxiliary hydraulic pump and·
power unit off!"
cs.
•••
•
110,4
110,5
NO.l
*14. Copilot: "GENERATORS?"
*12. Copilot: "BOOSTER PUMPS?"
Copilot turns all fuel booster pumps on. This
builds up a differential of 8 lb. in the rubber
lines to the engine to keep them from collapsing. It is also a safety precaution in case
of engine pump failure.
Copilot: "Booster pumps on!"
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Engineer responds "Standing by" and
switches on all 4 generators while takeoff
power is being applied. He stands by the
panel to turn off any generator indicating excessive load. If this is necessary, he waits until the other generators show signs of sharing
the load before returning the off generator to
the line, and switches it off again if it fails to
equalize.
Engineer: "Generators on!"
57
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Then copilot obtains a radio clearance for takeoff and you are ready for the takeoff run.
TAKEOFF
Takeoffs are easy and smooth in the B-24 provided there is plenty of room and you use
proper technique. Tricycle gear improves both
the takeoff and landing characteristics. Be sure
before you leave the line that the runway is
long enough ( considering altitude, temperature, ,
etc.-see takeoff chart) and be sure there are
no obstructions in your line of flight.
The Takeoff Run
1. Release the brakes and slowly but steadily
advance all throttles together. Learn to apply
power at the speed engines can readily take it.
Never jam or stiff-arm the throttles.
Taxiing Into Position
Get your clearance from the tower to line up
on the runway. Take a good look for aircraft
and taxi out in a wide sweep using a minimum
of runway for straightening the nosewheel.
Stop the airplane lined up straight ahead, hold
your position with the brakes, and set all throttles at 1000 rpm. Both pilot and copilot should
make a final quick check on all instruments.
58
2. If you start to move to the left of the middle of the runway lead the throttles on the left,
and vice versa. Don't stop the opposite set of
throttles, but instead lead all throttles progressively. In this manner you can build up
speed rapidly and obtain rudder control
quickly. Don't ever attempt to control direction
on takeoff by the use of brakes.
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3. As soon as you have rudder control, use it!
Come in with lots of rudder to hold your line
down the runway, rather than using excessive
and unnecessary build-up of power on one side.
4. Copilot follows throttles through with his
left hand, and as soon as they are against the
stops he sets the friction lock to prevent throttles from creeping but so they still can be easily
moved. Note: Pilot's hand should be on the
throttles throughout the takeoff except when
necessary to trim the plane or signal the copilot.
Whenever pilot's hand leaves the throttles, copilot should hold them. Copilot should closely
observe all instruments (particularly manifold
pressure and rpm). Use full throttle on takeoff.
This shortens the run and minimizes wear and
tear on tires and gear. Manifold pressure should
not exceed 49" for Grade 100 fuel or 42.7" for
Grade 91 fuel and propellers should not exceed
2700 rpm. Power reduction necessary to keep
within manifold pressure limits should be made
with the throttles and not with the turbo regulators.
5. As your speed increases to 70 or 80 mph so
that you have elevator control, ease back on the
control column just enough to relieve the nose-
wheel of its weight. When full weight is on the
nosewheel, the wing is at a negative angle of
attack; lifting the weight puts the wing in the
desired slightly positive angle.
6. Hold this attitude straight down the runway, and the airplane will fly itself off the
ground at 120 to 130 mph, depending on the
gross weight. Don't haul it off, however, and be
sure the attitude is correct. If you apply too
much back pressure, pulling the nose too far
up, you establish too great an angle of attack,
which creates more lift and puts the plane into
the air at a lower airspeed-110 mph, for example. Then, if you lower the nose to pick up
airspeed, you decrease the angle of attack and
therefore decrease the lift. The airplane cannot
accelerate fast enough to compensate for this
changed angle, and the result will be that you
settle back or .. the ground. So don't try to make
the airplane fly-let it fly itself. Once it does,
increase the back pressure just enough to establish a shallow positive climb, and hold it.
Note: Even if you have to get the airplane
into the air at a low airspeed (in a short-field
takeoff, for instance), don't lower the nose; hold
ST ART YOUR TAKEOFF RUN
RELIEVE NOSE WHEEL OF ITS WEIGHT
AIRPLANE WILL FLY ITSELF OFF
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59
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your angle of attack and let the airspeed build
up gradually.
7. Don't become over-anxious about building up climbing speed. It takes time for the
power of the propeller thrust to overcome the
inertia of a heavy airplane. Beware of lowering
the nose below level flight to build up airspeed.
Always make all changes of attitude gradually,
a little at a time. Make frequent small changes
rather than large ones. As your airspeed increases, relieve heavy fore or aft control pressure by trimming.
If you set artificial horizon properly before
takeoff, with the miniature airplane slightly below the horizon bar, you can hold the proper
angle of climb after leaving the runway by
keeping the miniature airplane approximately
1/s-inch above the horizon bar. Establish and
hold proper attitudes in the B-24 by reference
to flight instruments rather than to outside
objects. It's an instrument plane.
8. Attain a minimum airspeed of 140 mph
and a safe altitude above all objects before your
first power reduction.
AFTER-TAKEOFF CHECK
Amplified Checklist
1. Wheels. Copilot raises gear on signal from
the pilot, (usually thumb jerked upward). As
soon as the gear handle is in the "UP" position,
pilot stops the wheels with smooth, firm application of brakes. This reduces the strain on the
The copilot reads the after-takeoff
checklist when the gear and flaps
are up, the first power reduction is
completed, and when a safe altitude and an airspeed of 150 mph
are reached.
60
main gear suspension assemblies caused by the
gyroscopic action of rapidly rotating wheels.
Rough application of brakes puts undue strain
on the gear fittings and may rupture an expander tube.
Caution: There is no hurry about raising the
wheels. Be sure you have plenty of airspeed
and altitude before you start them up.
Press the Button
When the copilot raises the gear, he should be
sure to press down the safety button located on
top of the gear handle to unlock it. Forcing the
handle against the lock will injure the locking
pin.
If the solenoid latch does not release, you can
push the releasing pin in with a screwdriver
and then raise the gear handle to bring the
wheels up. The latch is located behind the
pilot's instrument panel just forward of the
pedestal. Don't try this on the ground because
you will retract the gear and the airplane will
crash down on its belly.
2. Superchargers. When the airplane attains
safe airspeed (140 mph) and altitude, the pilot
makes the first power reduction with superchargers and sets them for normal climb (not
to exceed 46" for Grade 100 or 38" for Grade
91 fuels).
Power Reduction With Electronic Turbo
Control: Turn the turbo control dial back toward zero until you reach the desired manifold
pressure.
3. Throttles. If manifold pressure remains
higher than desired for climb after superchargers are all the way off, then retard the ·
throttle to obtain climbing manifold pressure.
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4. Propellers. Copilot reduces rpm to 2550
when requested by the pilot.
5. Wing Flaps. Copilot raises them when directed by the pilot. Don't raise the flaps before
you have altitude of 500 feet and an airspeed of
140 mph. Remember that changes in flaps
change the lift effect of the wing. As you raise
the flaps, raise the nose of the airplane to correct for change in attitude. Use enough back
pressure to maintain altitude and the airplane
will rapidly accelerate to 150 mph" Don't lower
the nose to gain this speed because this will
result in unnecessary loss of altitude. Add noseup elevator trim to help maintain your altitude.
In heavily loaded aircraft, it is advisable to
raise the flaps from 20 ° to full up in two or
three stages.
Warning: Don't be in a hurry. Get a safe air-
speed and a safe altitude before you raise the
flaps. But don't let airspeed exceed 155 mph
with flaps down.
BOOSTER PUMPS
NO. I
N0.2
~
~
~
.,,,
OH
OH
~
~
6. Booster Pumps. Copilot switches them off
one at a time above 1000 feet and notes any
drop in pressure.
7. Cowl Flaps. Will normally be at trail for
the climb, checked and set by the copilot.
"""· ·
~
/
,,
-.
-.-.........
G
BOOSTER PUMPS
NO. 3
NO. 4
----------•
•
__ ,,. ....
................,,,,,.,,,'
RUNNING TAKEOFF
Procedure
1. Bring the airplane down to a normal 2poin t, nose-high landing.
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2. When speed has decreased to 80 mph
(about 113 distance of a normal landing roll) ,
gently lower the nose to a normal 3-point position.
3. Be sure you have ample runway left in
which to re-accelerate and take off.
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4. At command of the pilot, the copHot raises
the flaps from 40° to 20° and trims for normal
takeoff as the pilot smoothly applies normal
takeoff power. Remember that the airplane is
already moving fast, and don't advance throttles too rapidly.
5. Speed permits the pilot to maintain directional control entirely with rudder. It isn't
necessary to apply power unevenly or to use
brakes.
6. Lift the weight off the nosewheel as soon
as throttles are full forward.
7. A void a tendency to pull the airplane off
the ground at low speed and at a high angle of
attack. Build up adequate airspeed and break
contact as in a normal takeoff.
8. In other respects, proceed exactly as in a
normal takeoff.
Caution: On running takeoffs watch cylinderhead temperatures and open cowl flaps to trail
if necessary.
Warning: Don't hit the gear handle when you
mean to raise the flaps. Remember you have
full flaps down as you roll along the runway
and are bringing flaps to 20 ° to re-establish
normal takeoff settings.
Copilots have been known to reach for the
flap handle and unintentionally hit the gear
handle from force of habit while wheels are still
on the ground. Normally when the weight of
the airplane is on the gear, gear handle cannot
be moved to the up position. In a running takeoff, however, enough wei'ght may be off the gear
while wheels are still on the concrete to allow
oleo to extend far enough to close safety micro
switch in the left main gear and allow the gear
to unlatch and collapse.
Don't let flaps come all the way up. The Davis
wing needs 20° of flaps for additional lift.
Don't raise the gear until you are safely clear
of the ground. This is deceiving on runnning
takeoffs.
CRO.SSWIND TAKEOFF
You will experience no difficulty with a B-24
in crosswind takeoffs. Proper leading of throttles and use of rudder pressure will hold the
airplane straight down the runway.
Inherent directional stability of the tricycle
landing gear tends to keep the airplane straight
on its roll as long as the nosewheel is on the
ground. There is no tendency to weathercock.
Be sure, especially on bumpy runways, to
62
build up ample flying speed before leaving the
ground. Otherwise the airplane may settle back
down as it starts to drift and place severe strain
on the landing gear.
As soon as you are clear of the ground, hold
the wings level and establish a crab with rudder
to continue down the runway path. Don't drop
a wing, because this reduces your lift. Continue
as in a normal takeoff.
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HIGH-PERFORMANCE T·AKEOFFS
Where it is necessary to take off in as short a
distance as possible, execute a high-performance takeoff. This, on an average, reduces your
ground run approximately 200 feet and reduces
the total distance necessary to clear a 50-foot
obstacle by approximately 600 feet.
Be sure you have proper authority and are
going to succeed before you attempt a highperformance takeoff. Severa~ variables must be
considered: Pressure altitude, free air temperature, model and weight of the airplane, wind,
and type of runway surface. Don't take a
chance. Taking all these variables into consideration, precalculate the answers to 3 questions
before you attempt a takeoff:
1. What ground run will be required?
2. What will the takeoff airspeed be?
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3. What distance will be required to clear a
50-foot obstacle?
Use the high-performance takeoff chart in
this manual (if suitable) or in the technical
order for the model of airplane you are flying
to answer these questions. Calculate carefully
and double-check your answers. When you are
satisfied that the high-performance takeoff can
be safely made, use the following procedure.
Procedure (Based on Grade 100 fuel)
1. Complete the before-takeoff check. Run
up each engine separately to 2700 rpm and 47"
manifold pressure. (This setting allows for a
1 ½" increase in manifold pressure due to ram.)
2. Set wing flaps at 20° as for a normal takeoff. Set cowl flaps at 5° to reduce drag.
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Another Good Method
EXAMPLE OF WHAT MAY OCCUR IF NOSE
WHEEL IS NOT LINED UP WITH RUNWAY
3. Line up with the runway and make a positive check that the nosewheel is straight.
4. Hold the brakes and advance the throttles
smoothly and evenly to establish 35" of manifold pressure. Then release the brakes.
5. As rapidly as possible, advance the throttles to full open position.
6. Make your takeoff run in a normal manner until you reach your precalculated takeoff
speed! Then use sufficient back pressure to
break contact and gradually establish the desired angle of climb. Some margin of safety is
necessarily sacrificed by this procedure.
64
Here is another good method if you have room
and can continue your roll from the taxi strip
onto the end of the runway. Execute in the
same manner as the first procedure, except that
you roll directly from the taxi strip into your
takeoff run without stopping.
A void using brakes in the turn. Lead with
throttles on the outside of the turn. When you
have sufficient momentum to carry you through
the turn, retard that set of throttles, and as the
nose approaches the center line of the runway,
advance throttles on the inside of the turn sufficiently to check the turning action. Immediately follow up with the other set and advance
all throttles progressively as rapidly as possible
to the desired takeoff manifold pressure. This
procedure gives you the advantage of having
the mass weight of the airplane in motion at the
extreme end of the runway, permitting you to
take full advantage of every foot of runway
available.
Caution: You gain nothing by having too
much speed in executing the turn. You are
likely to roll a tire or damage the gear. The
main thing is to have the weight in motion at
the extreme end of the runway.
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You will .judge the proper angle of climb by
obstacles to be cleared, airspeed and the flight
indicator. The best average airspeed for the
climb after completing the after-takeoff check
(wheels up, flaps up, etc.) is 150 to 160 mph.
Pilot should relieve control pressures by
proper trimming and copilot should synchronize propellers as soon as convenient after
wheels and flaps are up. Both pilot and copilot
should keep a roving eye on all instruments to
see that po~er, temperatures and pressures all
stay within limits.
Auto-rich for All Climbs
Throughout all climbs mixture controls should
be in "AUTO-RICH," for at high power it is
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necessary for the proportion of fuel to air to be
relatively high to suppress detonation and
assist in cooling.
engine during the climb.
2. Use of Cowl Flaps: Keep in mind that the
position of cowl flaps seriously affects your rate
of climb because of added drag and disturbance
of the airflow-so much so that your airplane
may not climb above 23,000 feet with cowl flaps
only slightly open. Also, cowl flaps open from
10° to 20° will sometimes cause severe tail
buffeting. If necessary to use more than 10° to
maintain head temperatures within limits, try
opening them farther until the tail buffeting
stops.
Note: On late series B-24 aircraft, differential
cowl flap settings restrict the upper cowl flap
opening to 12 ¼ 0 •
3. Oil Temperatures: Oil temperatures can ·
be reduced more quickly by decreasing engine
rpm along with throttles than by reducing the
throttles alone.
4. Other Methods: Another good way to reduce both cylinder-head and oil temperatures
is to shallow your climb so that your IAS is 5 to
10 mph greater than normal climbing airspeed.
Effects of Increasing Altitude
As altitude increases, these things are occurring: The engines are generating more and
more heat the longer they work at climbing
power, tending to increase cylinder-head and
oil temperatures; normally the indicated air
temperature is gradually falling; atmospheric
pressure is gradually decreasing; it becomes
more difficult to obtain sufficient oxygen from
the atmosphere. It is important to consider the
effects of each of these conditions on your airplane and crew.
Engine Heat
1. Cylinder-head Temperatures: Adjust cowl
flaps to control head temperatures. Normally,
head temperatures will run about 232°C but
should never exceed the maximum of 260°C
nor fall below 150°C, the operating limits of the
C L I M B I N G POW E R 5 E TT I N G 5 ·
GRADE 100 FUEL-SPECIFICATION ANF-28
Operation
Setting
Mixture
RPM
MP
Time Limit
BMEP
HP
Climb
Desired
Auto-rich
2550
41
Continuous
167
990
Climb
Max.
Auto-rich
2550
46
Continuous*
186
1100
HP
GRADE 91 FUE·L-SPECIFICATION ANF-26
Operation
Setting
Mixture
RPM
MP
Time Limit
BMEP
Climb
Desired
Auto-rich
2550
35
Continuous
147
870
Climb
Max.
Auto-rich
2550
38
1 Hr.
160
950
*Cyl. head temp. not to exceed 232° C. For temperatures of 232° to 260° C, time limit is 1 hour.
The above are normal limits. Variations within limits will be governed by the type of operation for
a particular organization.
66
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This will not cause much loss in your rate of
climb.
In case of extreme cylinder-head and oil temperatures, use emergency "FULL RICH" mixture (with Bendix-Stromberg carburetors).
This will dissipate the heat very rapidly but
will also cause a loss of power and excessive
gas consumption. Use only long enough to reduce temperatures. Excessive temperatures are
sometimes caused by failure of the automatic
feature of "AUTO-RICH." "FULL RICH" corrects this because it gives a fixed mixture.
Decreasing Atmospheric Pressure
1. Airspeed Indicator: Decreasing atmospheric pressure causes your airspeed indicator
to show an airspeed lower than your true one.
2. Manifold Pressure: The density and pressure of the outside air is decreasing a:s altitude
increases. At sea level normal atmospheric
pressure will, on some engines, be sufficient to·
maintain the desired manifold pressure. As
altitude increases, and full throttle fails to give
sufficient manifold pressure, you add boost with
the turbo-superchargers.
Decreasing Air Temperature
1. Carburetor Air Temperature: On an extended climb when the relative humidity is
high, check regularly to be sure your carburetor air temperature is either above or below
the icing range (-5°C to +15°C). You can get
carburetor ice with little or no warning.
2. lntercooler Shutters: Hot compressed air
is coming to your carburetor from the supercharger through the intercoolers. Intercooler
shutters are kept in the open position to cool
this compressed air. It is practically never necessary to close intercooler shutters except in
very severe carburetor icing conditions. (See
Carburetor Icing.) If you do close them, keep a
close watch to see that both carburetor air temperatures and cylinder-head temperatures don't
suddenly rise beyond limits. Intercooler shutters should always be used with utmost caution
to avoid overheating.
3. Heater: Remember that there are crew
members all over the airplane who may be getting cold. Ask them if they want some heat.
The longer you can keep them warm the more
effective they will be with their headwork, ,
their bombs, and their guns. Crew comfort is
important to crew efficiency.
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20,000
15,000
10,000 - - - - - -
CHECK~
MANIFOLD PRESSURE
CYLINDER HEAD TEMPERATURE
OIL TEMPERATURE
CARBURETOR AIR TEMPERATURE
CABIN HEAT
FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS
Note: With oil-type turbo regulator, when
climbing at a given throttle setting, rpm, and
turbo regulator setting, the manifold pressure
will increase slightly as altitude increases because the atmosphere has less back-pressure
effect in relation to the constant exhaust pressure. This results in a steady increase in turbo
wheel speed and thus increased manifold pressure.
3. Booster Pumps On at 10,000 Feet: As you
climb and the atmospheric pressure decreases,
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is to let the airplane build up full momentum
for cruising. If you go directly from a climb to
level flight · with a B-24, and reduce power, it
will mush along at a high angle of attack and
in a high 'drag attitude while trying to gain
speed. It will fly sluggishly and inefficiently.
The heavier your load, the more important it is
to level off properly.
there is more and more tendency for a vapor
lock to form and for suction from your enginedriven fuel pump to collapse the rubber fuel
lines. Booster pumps put 8 lb. additional pressure in the lines to help support them. Turn the
booster pumps on at 10,000 feet and keep them
on until you descend below that altitude.
4. Crew: As altitude increases, your crew is
becoming less efficient. Their ears tend to
bother them. Head congestion may cause severe
pain. They are getting insufficient oxygen.
Always use oxygen above 10,000 feet.
Leveling-off Procedure
1. Continue your climb 300 to 500 feet above
the desired cruising altitude.
2. Level off, drop the nose slightly to get
on the step and pick up speed.
3. Reduce power to cruising setting and gradually descend to your cruising altitude.
4. Synchronize propellers anrl trim the airplane.
The Importance of Smooth Flying
Smooth, steady flying, proper trim, and minimum horsing of the airplane become more and
more important to maximum performance as
altitude increases. Steady, expert flying will
reduce your fuel consumption, eliminate haz. ards, increase your rate of climb, and reduce
wear and tear on your engines.
Remember that the only way you can maintain a constant attitude, steady climb and
smooth fiying in the B-24 is by reference to
instruments.
Cool Off the Engines
Remember that throughout the climb the engines have been generating heat. Give them a
chance to cool down somewhat below desired
cruising temperatures before you change to
"AUTO-LEAN" mixture settings. This allows
cylinders, blower and rear sections to dissipate heat. A well-cooled engine is less likely
to detonate when the mixture is leaned than a
hot engine.
To aid cooling, don't close the cowl flaps immediately upon completing the climb. Instead,
close them progressively as airspeed builds up .
LEVELING OFF
Always level off for cruising from the top in
both speed and altitude. The purpose of this
~-
.--··r·--,
. / 300 TO 500 FEET
~'
-
RIGHT
,
__ l _______ ~----~
.
DESIRED ALTITUD~· - • · . . ~
•►
~ ~ WRONG
--
~~~
68
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HOW TO SYNCHRONIZE
PROPELLERS
The copilot brings propellers to the desired
tachometer setting with the propeller governor
control switches. Although rpm readings are
identical for all 4 engines, propellers may not
be perfectly synchronized because of slight
variations in tachometers. To synchronize, copilot should follow this procedure:
1. No. 1 and No. 2 Propellers: Leave No. 2
(inboard) as it is. Note the rotating shadow
around the top half of No. 1 propeller. If the
shadow is rotating away from you, the propeller is too slow and should be increased; if
the shadow is rotating toward you, the propeller is too fast and should be decreased.
2. No. 3 and No. 4 Propellers: Leave No. 3
(inboard) a~ it is. Note the rotating shadow
around the top half of No. 4 propeller. Here
the procedure is reversed. If the shadow is
rotating away from you, the propeller is too
fast and should be decreased; if the shadow is
rotating toward you, the propeller is too slow
and should be increased.
Note: An easy way to keep this straight is
by remembering that all propellers in the B-24
rotate to the right. Thus, from the cockpit, No. 1
propeller is turning toward you and No. 4 going
away from you. If the shadow is rotating with
the propeller, then the propeller is too fast;
if the shadow is rotating backward ( against the
propeller rotations) , then the propeller is too
slow.
3. Increase or decrease rpm by a split-second
flick of the toggle switch and at the same time
check the effect on the shadow. The shadow
will disappear when propellers are synchronized.
4. If the shadows have disappeared and the
engines still sound unsynchronized ( engine
beat or pulsation), then No. 1 and No. 2 are
not synchronized with No. 3 and No. 4.
5. To synchronize the left pair of engines
with the right pair, check the tachometers to
see if one pair is indicating less than the deREST RIC TED
sired rpm. If so, flick both switches for that
pair forward at the same time and back to
neutral quickly. Repeat until you eliminate the
beat and get a steady drone. If the beat gets
worse, decrease rpm instead of increasing.
6. Now all 4 propellers should be synchronized. However, the propeller governors £qr the
propellers that were changed as a pair may
respond unevenly. If so, re-synchronize them.
Note: The difference in needle travel on the
tachometers will tell you which propeller governors are fast and which are slow. With practice you will be able to lead with the toggle
switches for slow-acting governors to bring all
propellers to the desired rpm at the same time.
At Night
Use your landing lights or a flashlight to see
which way the shadows are turning. With experience it is possible to synchronize propellers
by sound
69
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relieve any fore and aft pressure required to
hold the nose level.
TRIMMING
Trimming the B-24 is a routine procedure but
tremendously important to the easy and proper
operation of the airplane. Brawny, 200-lb. pilots
have exhausted themselves in an hour's flying
because they failed to trim properly and frequently enough. Poor trim cuts down the airspeed, increases fuel consumption, lowers the
speed and ceiling of a climb, and decreases the
efficiency of the airplane and the pilot. Formation flying is a nightmare if the airplane is
poorly trimmed.
Trim the B-24 by instruments-not by visual
reference to outside objects. But keep a sharp
lookout for other traffic at all times.
Following is the easy, sure way to properly
trim the airplane for straight and level flight.
Rudders
1. Hold the wings level with the ailerons by
reference. to the flight indicator and remove all
rudder pressure.
2. Watch the directional gyro to see if the
airplane is turning. Gradually correct with
rudder trim until the directional gyro holds a
steady course straight ahead.
Ailerons
1. Level the wings, hold a gyro heading with
rudder, and release the wheel.
2. If the flight indicator shows a wing is
dropping, correct with aileron trim.
Double-check
Finally, check the directional gyro, flight indicator and needle and ball with hands and feet
off controls to make sure of proper trim. Once
the airplane is properly trimmed, small adjustments will usually keep it there. Trimming
should become automatic.
When to Trim
Trim at the first sign of excessive control pressure. You will want to trim for climbs, descent,
gear down or up, flaps down or up, when the
crew changes positions, as the fuel is used up,
when your bombs are dropped, in case of engine failure, etc.
Balance the Power
See that you are using balanced power. Propel•
lers· should all be synchronized and you should
have equal manifold pressure on all engines.
This is important! Manifold pressures must be
equalized to a hair to give balanced power.
Elevators
1. Check the altimeter with the flight indicator and reset the latter if necessary for level
flight.
2. Hold the airplane level with reference to
the flight indicator and adjust elevator trim to
70
Relationship of load and Trim
If the airplane is perfectly loaded, it is possible
to fly it hands off with one or two degrees of
tab setting. On long flights tab settings become
extremely important. A loss of 3 to 4 mph in
airspeed can result from 1 ° of tabs on one control surface. Thus, if your ship is improperly
loaded and you have to use a lot of trim, it is
worth while to shift cargo to establish better
balance.
Don't kid yourself by holding pressures manually instead of using trim.
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•
CRU.ISING
Normal Automatic Lean Pressures
and Temperatures
As soon as you h(lve leveled off, synchronized propellers, trimmed the airplane,
and let the engines cool down, check all
instruments preparatory to going into autolean.
1. Cylinder Temperature: 232 ° C maximum.
205 ° C desired.
2. Oil Temperatures:
100° C maximum.
75 ° C desired.
3. Oil Pressures:
65 to 100 lb. sq. in.
4. Fuel Pressures:
16 to 18 lb. sq. in.
C R U I 5 I N G P O W E R 5 E.T T I N G 5
GRADE 91 FUEL-SPECIFICATION ANF-26
Operation
Setting
Mixtures
RPM
MP
Time Limit
Cruise
Normal
Auto-lean
1650-2100
30
Continuous
Cruise
Local
Auto-lean
2000
30
BMEP
HP
Continuous
131
610
GRADE 100 FUEL-SPECIFICATION ANF-28
Setting
Mixtures
RPM
MP
Time Limit
BMEP
HP
Cruise
Maximum
Auto-rich
2325
35
Continuous
150
820
Cruise
Maximum
Auto-lean
2200
32
Continuous
140
715
Cruise
Desired
Auto-lean
2000
30
Continuous
131
610
Cruise
Maximum Range: See Cruise Control Charts.
Operation
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71
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Automatic Lean
If instrument readings are satisfactory, and
power settings permit "AUTO-LEAN" operation, copilot ( at the pilot's direction) moves the
mixture controls one at a time to "AUTOLEAN." Pilot and copilot note the effect of this
on temperatures and pressures.
Carburetor air temperature should stay below 35°C. Excessive heat may cause detonation.
If an engine gets hot in "AUTO-LEAN" (a less
cooling mixture), go to "AUTO-RICH" long
enough to cool it down. If it stays hot in
"AUTO-LEAN," the automatic feature may
not be operating properly and you may have to
use "AUTO-RICH" for that engine.
Superchargers
Low altitude: ·If crmsmg at low altitude you
may have sufficient manifold pressure with
superchargers completely off. (Watch for icing,
however. If there is danger of icing, close intercoolers and operate as close to full throttle as
possible. See Carburetor Icing.)
Above 20,000 feet: Superchargers won't function properly at less than 1800 rpm above
20,000 feet because in less dense air there is
insufficient exhaust gas to operate the turbo
wheel properly. Don't suspect turbo regulator
trouble until you have checked rpm.
Cowl Flaps
Regulate cylinder-head temperatures with cowl
flaps. The closed position reduces drag and increases speed, but also increases engine temperatures.
Directional Gyro
Check and correct for precessing at least every
15 minutes or as necessary.
NOTE
Although pilot and copilot will be checking
instruments regularly, it is a good idea to call
for a complete check and report by the copilot
at stated intervals.
Flying the Airplane
Take pride in your ability to fly the airplane
perfectly. You can't expect your copilot or
72
your crew to develop keen interest in the
technique of their jobs unless you set an outstanding example.
Trimming: Keep your airplane perfectly
trimmed throughout the flight. This will save
wear and tear on both yourself and your airplane.
Heading: Hold your heading or your navigator will give up in disgust. If you are going
to change headings or di~e or climb, warn your
navigator in advance exactly what to expect.
Altitude: Hold your altitude. Don't be satisfied with 200 feet higher or lower.
Airspeed: As time passes and your load
lightens, your airplane will tend to gain airspeed. Maintain your predetermined IAS by
reducing power every 1 to 3 hours. This is a
· go0d rule of thumb for efficient cruising.
Fly the airplane as if you e~pected to use it
in a combat mission tomorrow.
Flight Performance Record
It is the copilot's duty, with the assistance of
the engineer, to keep a flight performance record of every mission. Entries should be made
every 30 minutes. Properly kept this form will:
1. Warn you of excessive gas consumption.
2. Give a running picture of the performance of engines.
3. Provide a check on how efficiently you are
flying the airplane.
Engineer's Hourly Visual Check
Require the engineer to make a visual check
once an hour of turbo, cowl flaps, nacelles, fuel
cell areas, etc. Many items will have to be
checked from the rear of the airplane. When
on oxygen, check can be conducted with the
use of a walk-around bottle.
Oxygen
When on oxygen, require the copilot to check
crew stations at least once every 15 minutes by
interphone to ascertain that crew members are
all right and have an adequate supply of oxygen on hand.
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GENERAL FLIGHT
CHARACTERISTICS
The flight 'characteristics of the B-24 are outstanding without exception if the airplane is
properly loaded. It has no abnormal or bad
characteristics. The tremendous power plant
will carry huge loads great distances at high
speeds with ease.
Inherent Directional Stability
The airplane has inherent directional stability
which may be maintained for long periods by
slight adjustments in trim. However, controls
are normally heavy, as they should be in a
heavy airplane, and the pilot who fails to maintain proper trim is ip for an exhausting workout. Properly trimmed, the airplane will fly the
desired heading true as an arrow with comfortable control pressures.
Longitudinal Stability
Longitudinal stability is excellent over a wide
range of center of gravity locations. Under normal loadings the airplane will return to normal
flight when released from a stall or other abnormal positions. However, when fully loaded,
the airplane increases its weight by ½ to ¾.
If the center of gravity moves too far forward
or too far aft, it is easily possible to develop
limit load factors. Exercise care in using controls smoothly and gradually when operating
near these limits, especially when the center of
gravity is in extreme aft positions, because it is
easy to develop excessive strain on the tail
assembly with sudden heavy elevator pressure.
will hold its own. Inherent stability will tend
to return the airplane to level flight. In a heavy
airplane like the B-24, this action is comparatively slow, so give the airplane time to settle
down.
In extremely turbulent air slow down to
150 mph. For additional drag and to avoid too
great a decrease in power, extend the landing
gear but bear in mind that this will have a
serious effect on your rate of fuel consumption.
Don't Fly Contact
The B-24 is strictly an instrument airplane.
You must fly by reference to instruments by
day and by night, fair weather or foul, if you
expect to get the most out of your airplane.
The only reason they put windows in the airplane is to permit you to see other aircraft and
mountains - so don't fly contact! Remember,
however, that it is easy to control the attitude
of the airplane by reference to instruments and
still keep a sharp lookout. Don't let the instrument panel hypnotize you. Even when the sky
seems empty, be heads-up for traffic. Remember what you learned in flying school about
the swivel head and the rubber neck. You still
need them. Keep crew mem hers on the alert as
lookouts, too, as an additional safeguard while
you work at the double job of flying by instruments and watching the air around you.
FLIGHT
INSTRUCTIONS
At no time will the following
maneuvers be attempted:
Characteristics in Rough Air
The intelligent pilot will avoid violent turbulence because the forces of some storms are
incalculable in their intensity. There is nothing
critical in ordinary rough-air operation with
the Liberator. It will maintain stable flight.
It is a waste of effort to fight every slight deviation from level flight. Use pressures to
maintain generally level flight and the airplane
RESTRICTED
LOOP
ROLL
SPIN
INVERTED FLIGHT
IMMELMANN
VERTICAL BANK
73
�RESTRICTED
Always follow all items on checklist.
Always check fuel before takeoff and regularly
during flight.
Always check nosewheel accumulator-if provided.
Always open intercoolers for starting.
Always use battery cart when available.
. Always check generator switches "OFF" when
starting.
Always use "AUTO-RICH" except when cruising.
Always check de-icers "OFF" before takeoff or
landing.
Always use outboard engines for steering when
taxiing.
Always turn "OFF" auxiliary hydraulic pump
before takeoff.
Always check gear latches engaged before
landing.
Always check the automatic pilot "OFF" before
takeoff or landing.
Never execute prohibited maneuvers.
Never exceed airspeed restrictions.
Never start engines before pulling props through.
Never start ~ith low batteries.
Never start with auxiliary power unit alone.
Never start with superchargers "ON."
Never use starter for direct starting. Inertia flywheel must be energized before meshing.
Never attempt to use intermediate positions on
mixture control.
Never turn on ground too sharply. It will damage
landing gear and tires.
Never attempt to take off with props in low rpm.
Never transfer fuel with radio "ON."
Never apply brakes with nosewheel off ground
Never land with brakes locked.
74
AIRSPEED
LIMITATIONS
Maximum
Limiting Factor
Indicated Airspeed
40 ° Flaps .......................... 155 mph
10 ° Flaps .......................... 180 mph
Lowering Landing Gear ............. 155 mph
41,000 lb. Gross Weight ............. 355 mph
56,000 lb. Gross Weight ............. 275 mph
Automatic Pilot: Do not operate the automatic pilot when flying at less than an indicated airspeed of 155 mph or when flying in
extremely turbulent air.
Extremely Turbulent Air: Slow down to IAS
of 150 mph.
Maximum Gross Weight of 56,000 lbs.: Do not
attempt other than normal flight. Permissible
flight factor-2.67; permissible landing factor2.25.
Emergency Maximum Gross Weight of 64,000
lb.: Do not attempt other than normal flight.
Permissible flight factor-2.3; permissible landing factor-2.0. Operate only from smooth fields
and do not exceed cruising speeds until load
has been expended to 56,000 lb.
STALLS
The B-24 has no unusual stall characteristics.
It has sufficient reserves of power; there is no
excuse for getting into a stalled condition if the
airplane is operated normally.
Various Factors Affecting Stalling Speeds
Wheels down will increase the stalling speed
of the airplane from 3 to 5 mph. The operation
of de-icer boots will have a serious effect on
the stalling speed. The degree of cowl flap
opening will reduce airspeed and affect stalling
speeds accordingly.
A feathered propeller is much less of a drag
on the airplane than a windmilling propeller.
An engine operating at 11" manifold pressure
is the equivalent of a feathered propeller.
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COMPARISON OF STALLING SPEEDS
Gross Weight
Lbs.
Wing Flaps and
L.G. Retracted
IAS
Wing Flaps 40°
l.G. Extended
IAS
NO
POWER
45,000
110
91
56,000
123
101
64,000
132
109
40%
45,000
103
71
56,000
114
80
64,000
123
85
POWER
Caution: All stalling speeds given in this
manual have been test flown but speeds will
vary slightly from airplane to airplane, of the
same weight and series. Speeds given serve as
a basic guide only.
Warning of Stalls: Usually the~e is clear
warning of an approaching stall. Controls will
loosen somewhat and airspeed will be falling
off. You will observe a shuddering of the tail
and a slight pitching action.
The Stall: In the approach to a stall ( the
usual practice maneuver) the nose will have
an increasing tendency to drop. In a complete
stall, the airplane will tend to fall off to either
side without any inherent tendency to spin.
Recovery From Stalls: The stall recovery in
the B-24 is like that in almost any other airplane for the most part:
1. Lower the nose to regain flying speed. Because of its aerodynamically clean design, the
B-24 will lose a great deal of altitude and pick
up speed rapidly.
2. If the stall occurs with decreased power,
don't increase power until you have lowered
the nose. The purpose is to establish airspeed
and prevent rolling action caused by torque.
3. If a wing drops and airplane is turning,
correct with rudder. Don't use ailerons. Ailerons increase the drag, aggravate the stall and
RESTRICTED
prolong recovery. You can stop the turn and
level the wings with rudder alone.
4. As your nose-low attitude builds up airspeed, blend in power gradually.
5. Don't attempt to raise the nose too rapidly
before you regain speed or it is possible to
cause a secondary stall more violent than the
original one.
6. Properly executed, you will blend in
power and raise the nose to level flight so that
as you level off you will have established
cruising airspeed and normal power settings.
WARNING CONCERNING
APPLICATION OF POWER
Never attempt recovery. from a stalled condition by immediate application of power. Those
wings are a platform with thousands of horsepower w,aiting to be lashed into action. When
you are in a stalled condition, the platform
loses its stability and, if you jam on power,
torque may violently roll the airplane to the
left. Always lower the nose, straighten with
rudder, and blend in power with your gain in
airspeed.
75
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TURNS
to one-needle-width turns in rough air and to
reduce airspeed to 150 mph.
How to Enter the Turn
Turns in the B-24 should be made by reference to the flight indicator, the directional gyro,
needle and ball, altimeter and airspeed indicator. One-needle-width turns are normal and
will vary in degrees of bank from approximately 20 ° for 150 miles an hour up to 25 ° for
200 miles an hour. Ex~ept in emergency, it is
recommended that banks not exceed 45 ° because the load factor at 60 ° is 2 G's or twice
that of level flight. In turbulent air a 60 ° bank
might impose loads far in excess of 2 G's.
Steeper banks very rapidly increase this load
factor to an unsafe degree. In moderately loaded airplanes banks up to 60 ° can be made
easily and safely, but with heavy loads aboard
safety is sacrificed as banks are steepened.
Since rough or turbulent air constantly
changes load factors, it is wise to limit banks
76
Drop a wing with aileron pressure to enter a
turn, coordinating necessary rudder and back
pressure on the elevators. Only slight rudder
is necessary. Control resistance is heavy and
the response of the airplane is slow and gradual. Don't stop short of the desired degree of
bank and then expect the wing to keep dropping. Bring it all the way down to the desired
degree of bank and then stop it. It will be necessary to hold aileron against the bank to keep
it from getting steeper. The amount of aileron
will vary with the degree of bank.
Difference in Turns
In a left turn, torque gives the B-24 a slight
tendency to lose altitude, so it is necessary to
come in early with back pressure to keep the
nose from dropping.
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is to overcontrol with rudder, throwing ball
off center.
Make allowances for torque again in the rollout. You'll have to use more back pressure in
a left turn than in. a right turn and will need
some forward pressure in the roll-out from a
right turn to keep from climbing as you near
level flight.
In a right turn, torque causes the airplane to
want to climb as you start the turn and the airplane holds its altitude slightly longer, so you
delay the use of back pressure accordingly.
Rolling Out of the Turn
Keep in mind that you are controlling a large
mass of weight on a platform that stretches 55
feet out on each side of you. Establishing a turn
~nd rolling out of it take time. To roll out of a
30 ° bank on a heading, give your roll-out about
15 ° of lead. Your roll-out will require smooth,
solid application of controls, and as in rolling in,
it is necessary to roll all the way out to level
flight. Don't relax ailerons until you are level
by the flight indicator. Proportion of aileron
used is much greater than rudder on both entry
and recovery compared with other planes. The
common tendency of most pilots on the B-24
Stalls in Turns
There is little danger of stalls in turns if you
maintain required airspeeds and do not force
the turn. But remember that there are many
factors affecting stalling speeds, including power settings, weight, wing flap setting, degree of
bank, cowl flap setting, use of de-icers, and
landing gear position.
The table of stalling speeds in turns gives you
an idea of how variable this factor is and how
rapidly stalling s·p eeds increase in turns.
HOW STALLING SPEEDS INCREASE IN TURNS
Gross Weight
43,000 lb.
50,000 lb.
56,000 lb.
30°
60°
Bank
Bank
IAS
IAS
oo
115
152
20°
101
133
40°
86
113
oo
124
163
20°
109
143
40°
93
122
oo
131
173
20°
115
152
40°
98
129
Wing Flap
Position
NOTE: Excessive ba ck pressure in any of these turns will cause the stalling speeds to be much higher.
RESTRIC TED
77
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bI J
0
C
•
~
"1"
10.2°
ANGLE OF BANK
.
11.5°/SEC .
~
~
-3°/SEC.
LOAD FACTOR
.1.065
-6°/SEC.
-1.31
12°/ SEC.
-2.00
150 MPH
100 MPH
I~--• .:__..;..; ~ :;rL
ANGLE OF BANK FOR 3°/ SEC. TURN
13.5°
ANGLE OF BANK FOR 1½
a.._..
Ld
6.85°
78
19.8"
0
/
300 MPH
200 MPH
25.6°
/ ,✓
-
35.75°
SEC. TURN
.· ...----=: __ ., ~ ~
10.2°
13.5°
19.8°
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In an extended dive when airspeed tends to
build up too much, reduce power as necessary
but don't pull it entirely off longer than necessary. This would allow the engines to cool down
too much.
DIVES
Diving Speed Limits
41,000 lb .............. 355 IAS
47,174 lb.............. 325 IAS
56,000 lb .............. 275 IAS
Recovery From Dives
Never violently dive the B-24. Under normal
flying conditions you will never have occasion
to exceed 250 mph in a dive. The airplane can
take it up to certain limits but these limits vary
greatly with the amount and position of loading. Air loads build up rapidly in a large airplane so avoid abrupt movements of controls.
In any normal dive always keep the airplane
trimmed by use of trim tabs. If you attempt to
hold forward elevator pressure without the use
of trim tabs or against opposite trim, sudden
relaxing of this pressure may, because of the
extreme leverage action, cause buckling of the
fuselage. It is better to trim slightly nose-hea:vy
rather than tail-heavy. If trimmed tail-heavy
in a dive, the inherent tendency of the airplane
to pull up makes application of up-elevator
easier and more abrupt, creating large loads.
For dive recoveries the airplane requires plenty .
of altitude. In contrast with maintaining a dive,
always pull out of dives by manual pressure
without the use of trim tabs so that you can
feel the amount of pressure you are using.
Otherwise you can build up tremendous elevator strain too fast by trimming out of the dive
with possible structural failure. It takes a lot
of space and a lot of pressure to change the direction of 25 tons of airplane hurtling downward at 200 to 250 mph.
Wait until you have re-established level
flight, and then re-trim and advance power to
the desired airspeed.
Combat Emergency: If, in combat, your elevator control cables were shot away and you
were thrown into a dive, you could trim your
way out with elevator tabs. Apply trim gradually, because you are using great leverage.
AIR-SPEED CORRECTION TABLE
TYPE G-2 PITOT HEADS AND FLUSH-TYPE
TYPE D-1 PITOT STATIC TUBES.
STATIC HEADS.
IAS CORRECTED MPH
IAS
Instrument
Reading
MPH
Wing Flaps
Retracted
90
--
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
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--
--127
137
147
158
169
179
190
200
211
221
--
---
Wing Flaps
Extended
20° Down
--105
116
127
142
150
161
---
--
-------
Wing Flaps
Extended
Full Down
85
96
107
118
130
139
148
----------
--
IAS
Instrument
Reading
IAS CORRECTED MPH
Wing Flaps
Retracted
Wing Flaps
Extended
20°
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
---127
138
148
109
118
128
139
149
160
158
159
170
168
--
180
179
--
190
189
200
199
210
209
--
220
219
--
230
230
240
240
--
Wing Flaps
Full Down
--
80
95
108
119
129
140
150
--
---
---
,,
---
--
--
---
---79
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In a normal cruising descent the object is to
come down at the rate of approximately 200
feet a minute, using normal cruising power settings, so that you will arrive at an altitude
500 to 1000 feet above traffic as you near the
landing area. It is poor planning and wastes
fuel to arrive above the field 6000 to 10,000 feet
high and then chop power and come down like
an elevator. You waste time over the field and
cool the engines too rapidly.
Good Procedure
DESCENT TO
THE LANDING AREA
The B-24 is built for long missions at high altitudes. Just as in climbing or cruising, the descent from altitude can be sloppy or skillful
depending on the knowledge and foresight of
the pilot.
Normal Cruising Descent
It saves time, fuel and maintains engine performance to plan your descent ahead. Two factors govern a normal descent: distance from
the landing area, and desired rate of descent.
1. Plan your descent. To come down 10,000
feet at 200 feet a minute would require 50
minutes. In that case you would start your
descent about an hour out from the field. From
20,000 feet you would start descending 1 hour
and 40 minutes out.
2. Lower the nose to establish the desired
rate of descent. It isn't advisable to exceed
200 miles an hour.
3. Trim to maintain a steady, constant rate
of descent. To increase the rate of descent, reduce power. This avoids building up excessive
airspeed. With this procedure you are getting
greater efficiency from fuel, saving time, and
placing minimum strain on the airplane.
WRONG
RIGHT
80
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Reminders
1. Oxygen. Stay on oxygen until you get below 10,000 feet.
2. Booster Pumps. Turn off below 10,000 feet
to prevent overheating and to increase their
life.
3. Cowl Flaps. The increased airspeed will
tend to lower the cylinder-head temperatures
so you should be able to close cowl flaps if they
were open during cruising.
4. lntercooler Shutters~ Make sure they are
open. (See Carburetor Icing.)
5. Manifold Pressure. You may want to reduce power when descending. In a cruising
descent, however, you would maintain a constant manifold pressure during the descent. If
equipped with manually operated turbos and
if you have some boost on, it will be necessary
to slightly advance turbo controls to maintain
manifold pressure while descending until you
arrive at an altitude where your internal blower
will provide sufficient manifold pressure. At
this point, turbos may be pulled all the way off.
After that, you'll get a rise in manifold pressure
as altitude decreases · and will control it by reduction of the throttles.
If equipped with electronic turbo controls,
the manifold pressure will be automatically
maintained down to an altitude where increase
in atmospheric pressure allows internal blower
to provide sufficient manifold pressure. At this
point turbo control may be dialed back to zero
and power controlled from then on by throttles.
6. Airway Traffic Control Rules. Keep them
in mind during your descent.
I
Quick Descent Without Exceeding Airspeed
When it is necessary to make a quick descent,
don't point the nose down and dive at excessive
airspeeds. A good method is to reduce manifold
pressure to 18" or 20" and bring the indicated
airspeed down to 160 mph before lowering the
nose. Don't lower the nose before you have dissipated airspeed or the inertia of the B-24 will
keep you moving at high forward speed. Hold
approximately 160 mph.
If you want a faster rate of descent, maintain
this airspeed and further reduce power. For a
slower r~te of descent, increase power and
maintain the same airspeed. Control your airspeed by raising or lowering the nose. Trim to
maintain attitude with ease. This gives you a
descent controlled by power which will prove
valuable in instrument approaches. It gives you
lower forward speed, better control, reduces
the turning radius and relieves control pressures.
Cold: In cold weather, after you reduce manifold pressure, increase rpm to approximately
2400. This will keep the engines warm.
Warning: Never make a long power-off descent. This cools the engines too quickly and
may result in turbo warping, or in possible engine failure when you resume power.
QUICK DESCENT WITHOUT EXCEEDING AIRSPEED
RESTRICTED
81
�RESTRICTED
Approaching the· Landing Area
When your. descent is completed and you are
in the vicinity of the landing area, restore normal rpm and manifold pressure unless you are
going directly into th~ traffic pattern. Notify
the tower of your position and obtain altimeter
setting and landing instructions.
Strange Fields
When clearing for strange fields you, of course,
ascertain in advance that runways are of suitable length and condition to accommodate a
B-24, and that you can obtain the type of fuel
and service necessary. However, weather or
emergencies may force a change of flight plan
to a strange field. Check carefully with the
tower before you land as to the length of runways and the type of surface. A difference in
the surface alone can lengthen your landing
roll as much as 1000 feet (see Landing Table).
It may be better to ask permission to use a runway that is quartering or crosswind rather than
a shorter runway into the wind. At a strange
field it is a good idea to fly over the field 500
feet above traffic to look it over and note obstructions.
TABLE OF
DISTANCES
This table is useful both for reference and comparisons. Figures used are average based on
no wind and standard temperatures. Example:
To land a 50,000-lb. airplane on a hard surface
runway with a field elevation of 3000 feet over
a 50-foot obstacle, you should have a ground
roll of 2610 feet and a total distance of 3140
feet between the obstacle and the end of the
ground roll, with moderate braking from point
of contact.
LANDING DISTANCE (In Feet) B-24, D, E, G, H, & J
HARD DRY SURFACE
Gross
Weight
in Lb.
At Sea Level
At 3000 Feet
At 6000 Feet
To Clear
50' Obi.
Ground
Roll
To Clear
50' Obi,
Ground
Roll
50' Obi.
Ground
Roll
40,000
2365
1885
2640
2250
2960
2470
50,000
2940
2410
3140
2610
3380
2850
To Clear
FIRM DRY SOD
Gross
Weight
in Lb.
At Sea Level
To Clear
At 3000 Feet
At 6000 Feet
50' Obi.
Ground
Roll
To Clear
50' Obj.
Ground
Roll
To Clear
50' Obj.
Ground
Roll
40,000
3300
2820
3620
3140
3940
3460
50,000
3920
3490
4240
3700
4560
4040
NOTE: For ground temperatures above 35° C (95° F), increase approach IAS 10% and allow 20% increase in ground roll.
82
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�RESTRICTED
Comparison: It requires 500 to 600 feet more
ground run at a 6000-foot field to land the same
weight airplane on the same kind of surface.
Everything else being equal, you may need as
much as 1200 feet more ground roll on sod than
on concrete. A difference of 10,000 lb. in
weight alone can increase your ground roll as
much as 400 to 600 feet. These are average
figures based on no wind and will vary with
wind and air density. However, they show the
importance of considering every factor before
deciding to try to land at a strange field.
Caution: Just because you or somebody else
got into a field last week doesn't mean you can
do it today. How much did the airplane weigh,
what was the direction and velocity of the
wind; and what was the air density compared
to conditions today? One serious variation can
make hundreds of feet of difference in distance
required.
LANDING CHECKS AND TECHNIQUES
Consistently good landings in a B-24 require
a combination of good judgment, good technique and good timing. Although there are
quite a few things to do on a landing, you can
time your cockpit operations so that you are
free at the right moments to concentrate on
flying the airplane.
Bear down on your technique and keep it
sharp. When you get your own plane and crew,
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you'll want to grease every landing to keep the
old bus in good shape for the next flight. The
key to good landings regardless of the weight of
the airplane is "control with power." A heavy
airplane is not a floating or gliding type. Power
takes you off and it's the proper use of power
that will let you down easy at reasonable speed.
Don't forget that! It applies to every type of
B-24 landing.
83
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Location of Downwind Leg
Establish your downwind leg 1 to 3 miles out
from and parallel to the landing runway. Fly a
reciprocal gyro heading. In strong winds it is
usually desirable to set the downwind leg closer
to the field; this will shorten the base leg and
prevent excessive drift.
BEFORE LANDING
Amplified Checklist
Reduce your indicated airspeed to 160 mph as
you enter traffic. Start your before-landing
check early enough to complete it by the time
you are opposite the tower on your downwind
leg.
main gear down and locked when it comes
down.
IN'BD BRAKE
PRESSURE
OUT'BD BRAKE
PRESSURE
*4. Copilot: "BRAKE PRESSURE AND
PARKING BRAKE?"
Pilot presses pedals, ~otes pressure, · and
checks parking brake handle in "OFF" position.
Pilot: "Brake pressure checked and parking brake off!"
1. Copilot: "ALTIMETER SETTING?"
Before you enter traffic, copilot calls the
tower for altimeter setting and landing instructions.
Pilot: "Altimeter set and landing instructions
received!"
*2. Copilot: "CREW TO STATIONS?"
5. Copilot: "AUTOMATIC PILOT?"
Pilot checks all switches "OFF."
Pilot: "Automatic pilot off."
Engineer checks that the nose section is clear
of passengers and crew. He also directs that
the ball turret and trailing antenna be retracted.
Engineer: "Crew in landing positions!"
*6. Copilot: "GEAR?"
*3. Copilot: "AUXILIARY HYDRAULIC PUMP?"
Engineer turns it on and signals "On." He
continues back to the waist to check the
Copilot puts the handle in the up position
briefly, to eliminate any load on the gear
locks, then puts it down at the pilot's direction, at a speed no gr~ater than 160 mph.
When the gear comes down it usually reduces airspeed about 5 mph.
Copilot: "Gear down!"
*ITEMS WITH ASTERISK FOR SUBSEQUENT LANDINGS.
84
R E_S TR IC TED
�RESTRICTED
BOOSTER PUMPS BOOSTER PUMPS
N0.1
N0.2
N0.3.
N0.4
Q
~
~
fdJ
ON
ON
ON
ON
tttt
*7. ~opilot: "MIXTURES?"
~~U)fj)
Copilot (at the direction of pilot) puts them
in "AUTO-RICH" positions.
Copilot: "Mixtures in auto-rich!"
*11. Copilot: "BOOSTER PUMPS?"
Copilot turns them all on to assure adequate
fuel pressure during landing.
Copilot: "Booster pumps on!"
*8. Copilot: "PROPELLERS?"
Copilot increases rpm to 2400 to permit
greater flexibility of power range if required.
Copilot: "2400 rpm!"
Increase in rpm will cause a drop in manifold pressure. Pilot should be ready to increase throttles, as manifold pressure drops,
to maintain power.
INTERCOOLER
SHUTTERS
~
~
INTERCOOLER
SHUTTERS
~
p..
ilil
fc)
""
12. Copilot: "WING DE-ICERS?"
Copilot checks to make sure they are off.
Never land with de-icers on!
(See note on exhaust heat anti-icing.)
Copilot: "De-icers off!"
, ..~
., ..,
9. Copilot: "INTERCOOLERS?"
Copilot checks them open.
Copilot: "Intercoolers open!"
,- .
ClOSE __ ClO,l _
~,~~--
tl{)St
CLOS!
*10. Copilot: "COWL FLAPS?"
Copilot checks them for required position.
Copilot: "Cowl flaps closed ( or as required)!"
*13. Copilot: "WHEELS?"
Pilot and copilot look out to see if they each
have a wheel, Pilot: "Wheel left!"; Copilot:
"Wheel right!" Pilot checks and reports,
",L ight on, handle in neutral."
Engineer: "Gear down and locked!"
Warning Horn: On final approach, when
throttles are retarded to 15" manifold pres-
*ITEMS WITH ASTERISK FOR SUBSEQUENT LANDINGS.
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85
�RESTRICTED
sure or less, the horn will blow to warn you
the gear is not fully down or not locked. But
remember that some of the later series aircraft do not have horns.
Before-landing check should be completed by
the time you pass the tower on the downwind
leg to leave you free to get ready for the turn
on the base leg.
Get on the Step
14. Copilot: "BALL TURRET AND TRAILING
ANTENNA?''
After the engineer has checked the main gear
through the waist gun windows, he proceeds
forward to check the ball turret and trailing
antenna to be sure they are retracted and
the nose gear down and locked. Note: Be· sure
your engineer knows how to check gears
locked.
Engineer: "Ball turret and trailing antenna
retracted!"
•
'
'
*15. Copilot: "WING FLAPS?"
Copilot lowers them 10 °. This increases drag
very little at 150 mph but increases lift materially and gives the plane a more level
attitude, better visibility and a lower stalling
speed.
Copilot: "10 ° of flaps!"
Airspeed: Be sure your airspeed is 155 mph
or less before lowering flaps.
Get up on the step just as soon as your wing
flaps are down 10 °. Remember: Control airspeed with attitude and control ascent and
descent with power. If airspeed starts to drop,
lower the nose until you are holding the desired airspeed and ease on more power to maintain your desired altitude. Don't jockey your
attitude and power so that one correction
throws the other off. If the airplane is mushing
with nose high and you add power, it will keep
right on mushing with only slow gain in airspeed. To regain airspeed and eliminate the
mushing effect with the least possible delay,
the nose should be lowered slightly as. the
power is added.
Time Your Distance Out
You are flying a reciprocal gyro heading parallel to the landing runway. As you pass a point
opposite the end of the runway, start timing
yourself. Usually you will fly 20 to 30 seconds
and then start a standard rate ( one needlewidth) turn into your base leg. The turn will
carry you about ¾ mile farther out from end
of the runway this will put your base leg approximately 2¾ miles from the edge of the
field. Your heading and turns are controlled
........
._TIME YOUR . .._.
DISTANCE OUT
.,
,,,,
~ COMPLETE
,
THE CHECKLIST
OPPOSITE TOWER
,
LOOK AROUND!
,
,,
,,
GROUND TRACK
* ITEMS WITH ASTERISK FOR SUBSEQUENT LANDINGS.
86
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�RESTRICTED
entirely with reference to instruments. Watch
your time, and turn on your base leg to make
good a gyro heading perpendicular to the landing runway.
Base Leg
RIGHT
If you have followed approved procedure, you
will be free on the base leg to fly your gyro
heading, observe traffic ahead, and look over
the approaches to the landing strip. This gives
you a chance to judge your distance out from
the end of the runway in relation to your altitude. The success or failure of a landing depends largely on a good entry into your final
approach.
/
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Turning On Final Approach
When to start your turn on final approach is
important. The common tendency is to wait too
long. Lead your standard-rate turn, approximately ¾ of a mile. Then your rollout will
bring you into final approach in line with the
runway.
Half Flaps: Pilot calls for half flaps just
before starting the turn into final approach, and
copilot lowers them to 20 ° position.
Power Reductions: As the flaps come do'Yn,
pilot reduces his power. Pilot should hold a
level turn until 20 ° flaps and reduced p9wer
bring airspeed down to 135 mph.
Line Up With the Runway
Be sure you are lined up with the runway. If
not, rudder over at once before you get too
close to the field. You may roll out to the right
or left of the runway and you can usually correct this with rudder and little or no bank if
you start far enough back.
FINAL APPROACH
Amplified Checklist
As you roll out of your turn lined up with the
runway, start your checklist procedure.
Warning: Be sure your feet are flat on the
rudder pedals and down off the brakes. It takes
very little brake pressure to blow your tires
when the wheels touch.
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1. Copilot: "PROPELLERS?"
Pilot has reduced power below 25" manifold
pressure and now calls for high rpm. Copilot
sets propellers in high rpm.
Copilot: "High rpm!"
2. Copilot: "SUPERCHARGERS?"
Pilot sets superchargers at takeoff manifold
pressure so that full power will be available
if needed.
Pilot: "Superchargers set and locked."
3. Copilot: "FULL FLAPS?"
Pilot calls for full flaps (airspeed 135 mph)
and copilot lowers them. This will bring the
airspeed down to 125 to 130 mph for the glide.
Copilot: "Full flaps down!"
4. Copilot: "AIRSPEED."
Copilot calls out airspeed every few seconds
throughout landing to assist pilot in maintaining proper attitude.
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Make Good a Point
Pick a point about 10 feet short of the runway
and line it up with a rivet or reference point on
the nose. You are making good this point in
your descent if you keep it lined up with the
reference point on the airplane. If the point
on the ground drops below your reference line,
you are overshooting it; if the point moves
above the refere~ce line you are undershooting
it. Don't try to judge your flight path by a
projection of your longitudinal axis.
Airspeed: Maintain 125 to 130 mph in your
glide. With full flaps down you can control your
descent with power. A good, normal rate of
descent is 500 feet a minute at 15" to 18" of
manifold pressure. If undershooting, increase
power to cut your rate of descent; if overshooting, decrease power to increase your rate of
descent. In either case, maintain a constant approach airspeed.
Flare-Out: Start your flare-out high enough,
about 150 feet up. It takes time to change the
direction of a 4-engine bomber. Your airspeed
will decrease gradually as you gradually raise
the nose and reduce power.
Coordination of Power and Attitude
Your flare-out and reduction of power should
be perfectly coordinated. If too high, reduce
power; don't steepen your gliding angle and
buiild up excessive airspeed. If you are coming
in just right, power should be blended off in
almost perfect coordination with your roundout. If you are flaring out short, let your power
lag behind the flare-out to carry you farther
in; if you are too high, bring power off a little
faster to ease the airplane to the ground more
quickly. Properly executed, the flare-out will
bring the airplane in just above the runway
surface at 105 to 110 mph in a definitely noseup attitude, sinking at a rate that will grease
it into the runway. Power keeps down your
rate of descent and prevents the airplane from
hitting the runway with a heavy jolt.
Undershooting: There is a tendency to undershoot because in a normal landing the flight
path is much steeper than it seems. Although
the nose may be pointed well down the runway, the airplane may be sinking toward a
point short of the runway. Pick a point to make
good and establish a reference line by which to
judge your glide path.
Dropping In: The B-24 is not a glider. Don't
make the mistake of chopping off all power in
the flare-out before your airplane is on the
concrete. Let down to the runway with smooth,
gradual reduction of power. Otherwise the
heavy drag of wings, flaps, and windmilling
propellers will cause a sudden loss of airspeed
and will drop you in.
Flying Onto the Concrete: What you want is
power control, not excessive airspeed. If you
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END OF RUNWAY ♦
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come in too fast, you'll have to fly onto the
concrete with the nose gear as low as the main
gear to get the airplane to stay on the runway.
Then, with power off, if you try to kill speed by
bringing the nose up, you will take off again,
rapidly lose airspeed, stall and drop in from
several feet above the ground.
Get the nose up and airspeed down during
the flare-out, and control your sink with power.
Use correct airspeed, attitude and power control and you've got a good landing.
Landing Roll
Hold the nose up with the elevators and maintain directional control with the rudders. In a
nose-high attitude the drag of the wings and
flaps reduces speed rapidly.
Keep the nose high until it tends to want to
come down-usually at 70 to 75 mph. Then
lower the nosewheel smoothly to the runway.
When the nosewheel is solidly on the ground
( and not before), raise your feet into braking
position.
Brakes
Feel out the brakes early so you will know
what to expect of them. If you have plenty of
room, use it and save your brakes, but remember it is better to use brakes too early than too
late. Get the airplane slowed down with areasonable amount of room to spare. Use br.akes
progressively. Apply them and then release
them. Don't sock them on and leave them. And
don't leave the weight of your toes on the
brakes when not applying them, because the
heat ·generated may crack a drum or burst an
expander tube.
Clear the Runway
Clear the runway promptly. The pilot behind
you may have lost his hydraulic brake pressure
and not know it, or may need all the runway.
CROSSWIND LANDINGS
Crosswind landings in a Liberator present the
same problem as in other aircraft except that
poor technique produces more serious consequences. The object is to bring the airplane
onto the runway with zero drift. Any drift will
place a heavy side load on the gear and can result in blown tires or landing gear failure.
In a crosswind landing, ·fly the pattern just
the same as in a normal landing. Line up with
your runway on final approach and note your
drift. There are 2 approved methods of correct-
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COMBINATION
SLIP AND ~
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.~
ing for drift, namely: Full crab with wings
level, or combination of crab with the upwind
wing slightly down.
Full Crab Correction
1. Hold your wings level and head the airplane sufficiently into the wind with rudder to
fly a ground track directly down the center of
the runway path.
2. Approach ~he end of the runway an:d flare
out in the usual manner. Just before you touch
the ground, use rudder to head the nose down
the center of the runway.
3. Timing is the thing. If you straighten the
crab too soon, you'll start to drift 'before you
touch the runway. If you delay too long, you'll
hit the runway while still in a crab. The moment you touch the runway is the crucial one.
4. Remember that when you rudder out of
90
the crab you are moving the upwind wing
rapidly forward, tending to increase its lift, so
it will require a little opposite aileron to hold
the wings level. It requires perfect timing to
execute this type of crosswind landing properly
because of the large correction necessary and
slow response of the airplane to rudder control.
Combination Method
1. Here you correct drift by crabbing and
dropping the upwind wing slightly to fly a track
in line with the runway.
2. Here's what actually happens. You rudder
into the crab, and lower the wing in a coordinated movement and at the same time
lower the nose slightly and relax rudder pressure. The result is a crab and a mild slip into the
wind. For that reason it is important not to
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drop the wing too much because you lose lift
rapidly in an uncoordinated bank.
Again be sure your airplane is not drifting
as you contact the runway. Usually you can
correct the crab and lift the wing almost entirely with rudder, because the forward movement of the upwind wing as it swings out of
the crab will lift it. Use no more ailerons than
necessary, because ailerons create burble at
low flying speeds.
Warning: If you see you have taken out the
crab too soon and are starting to drift, you have
2 choices: Apply enough power to keep the airplane off the runway and re-establish a nondrifting ground track; or; if that is not possible,
apply full power smoothly to go around and try
again. Don't take a chance on hitting the runway while you are drifting sideways. The combination type of crosswind landing is most commonly used.
Crosswind Landing Roll
In either the full crab or combination methods
it is a good idea to touch the ground with the
nose slightly lower than normal but with the
nosewheel definitely clear of the concrete.
Bring the nosewheel firmly to the ground as
soon as possible.
Tricycle Gear Fights a Groundloop
The inherent directional stability of the tricycle
landing gear overcomes the weathervaning
effect of the crosswind on the airplane. Reason:
The center of gravity is between the main gear
and the nose gear. The force of inertia (or moving weight) is straight ahead, down the center
of the runway, and tends to pull the nosewheel back to this line if it starts to veer. Thus
inertia fights against a groundloop. In conventional airplanes with the center of gravity aft
of the main gear, inertia tends to ·swing the tail
around and aggravate a groundloop.
You can hold the plane straight ahead with
rudder control until speed drops down to 70 or
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75 mph. As you lose rudder control, a little
extra throttle on the upwind outboard engine
or slight brake pressure on the· clownwind side
will hold the plane straight on the runway.
Keep flying the airplane. A successful crosswind landing is not completed until the airplane is safely parked on the hangar line.
_CROSSWIND TAXIING
When taxiing in a high crosswind, it is difficult
to hold rudder neutral. In that case, it will save
wear and tear on yourself and the copilot to
relock controls before starting to taxi. If so, be
sure · you unlock them before takeoff. Usually
the copilot can hold controls in neutral.
On the average taxi strip you can keep the
airplane down the center of the runway in a
crosswind by proper manipulation of throttles.
When the airplane starts to nose into the wind,
apply power smoothly on the upwind outboard
engine long enough so the nose will swing past
the center line; then pull the throttle off. Meanwhile ;hold other throttles back. Then let the
airplane gradually nose back to the center of
the runway and repeat. This produces an S-ing
track . but permits control without brakes and
without building up excessive speed.
Another method is to carry enough constant
power on the upwind side to counteract the
crosswind. However, this tends to build up excessive speed and requires more frequent use
of brakes.
In a severe crosswind or on a narrow taxi
strip, it may be necessary to use the downwind
brake to hold a straight-ahead path. If so, apply
the brake and release it, apply and release.
There is danger of destructive heat if you maintain a steady pressure.
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GO-A ROI ND
Be ready, on every landing, to go around if
necessary. Without warning, it may be necessary for the tower to send you around again
because of an accident on the runway, misunderstanding of traffic instructions by another
pilot, or other emergency. You may choose to
go around because you find yourself too close
behind another airplane, because you are overshooting or have made a bad landing. Don't
wait too long. The minute you see the need,
decide to go around. If you aren't on the ground
in the first % of the runway, call for the goaround procedure. Notify your copilot so he
knows immediately what you intend to do.
than p~opeller governors can change pitch so
that there is danger of a runaway propeller.
Trimming: Re-trim elevators for climb as you
increase power. You were trimmed for landing
and for reduced power. Increased power will
make the airplane tail-heavy until re-trimmed.
Climb: You are trying to build up airspeed
with full flaps down, so hold a near level-flight
attitude with very shallow climb.
120~
Amplified Checklist
1. Copilot: "POWER."
As he announces the go-around procedure,
the pilot opens throttles to takeoff manifold
pressure 'and re-trims airplane.
Avoid Jamming: Don't stiff-arm the throttles.
Advance power smoothly and rapidly but no
faster than propellers can take it. If you jam
power on too fast, it speeds up blades faster
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2. Copilot: "AIRSPEED."
Copilot watches the airspeed and calls it out
. to the pilot every few seconds.
3. Copilot: "WING FLAPS."
After the airplane has reached a safe speed
(approximately 120 mph) copilot when di93
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rected by the pilot, brings the flaps up to 20°
and returns flap handle to neutral. Simultaneously the pilot raises the nose enough to
maintain lift and altitude. Then he will experience no sink and airspeed will rapidly
build up to 135 mph.
Copilot: "Wing flaps at 20° ."
Errors: Stop at half flaps! Don't be distracted
and bring flaps all the way up yet. Be sure
you have 120 mph airspeed before calling for
½ flaps and don't let the plane sink while
flaps are coming up. Raise the nose enough
to maintain altitude without reducing airspeed.
4. Copilot: "WHEELS COMING UP."
As soon as the flaps are up to 20 °, the copilot
will reach over and raise the wheels upon
command from the pilot. Don't attempt to
raise the wheels until you return the flap
handle to neutral. The hydraulic system is
designed to perform only one major operation at a time.
Error: Don't pull gear up before bringing the
flaps to 20 ° or you'll have to wait the 25 to 30
seconds it takes the gear to retract before
you can raise the flaps. Then you would have
the drag of full flaps when you could be
gaining forward speed and climbing. Thirty
seconds is a long time at this point.
Check
After you have a safe airspeed, check tempera- ·
tures and put cowl flaps at trail, if closed. Don't
change cowl flaps until you have 135 mph.
END OF LANDING ROLL
1. Copilot: "SUPERCHARGERS?"
Pilot closes them while taxiing.
Pilot:' "Superchargers off."
2. Copilot: "BOOSTER PUMPS?"
Copilot switches them off.
Copilot: "Booster pumps off."
94
3. Copilot: "GENERATORS?"
Engineer checks them in "OFF" position.
Engineer: "Generators off."
4. Copilot: "WING FLAPS?"
Copilot raises flaps.
Copilot: "Wing flaps up."
5. Copilot: "COWL FLAPS?"
Copilot opens them fully.
Copilot: "Cowl flaps open."
6. Copilot: "AUXILIARY POWER UNIT?"
Engineer turns this unit on during taxiing
because generators will not charge batteries
when engines produce less than 1700 rpm.
Engineer: "Auxiliary power unit on."
7. Copilot: "BRAKE PRESSURE?"
Copilot checks brake pressure and continues
to check it frequently until the airplane is
parked. If at any time brake pressure falls
belo~ 800 lb., pilot will bring the airplane to
a stop and not move it again until brake pressure is re-established or until engineering
personnel come to tow the airplane in.
TAXIING IN
As ·soon as your landing roll is completed, clear
the runway and keep moving, because other
aircraft may also want to clear immediately.
At strange fields ask the tower for taxiing information. Don't proceed blindly. Tower personnel are there to help you. Ask for clearance
before crossing runways. Some fields use 2 runways at the same time. Don't forget to post an
observer.
PARKING THE AIRPLANE
There isn't any hurry. Wait for directions if
not fully familiar with the parking area. Get a
ground man out in front and one on each wingtip. Remember that you are the airplane commander, and if the ground crew rams you into
another airplane or tries to put you into a space
that's too small, you'll get the blame. If in doubt
as to clearance, stop the airplane in its tracks.
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Don't let a ground-crew man mess up your
airplane. Let them put it away with a tug.
After completing the turn into the parking
space, roll at least 5 feet forward to avoid parking with the nosewheel at an angle.
Caution: When the airplane ~s parked don'~
let any of the crew or passengers leave until
the engines are stopped. Issue special instructions to this effect if anyone has been ill during
the flight. Never let anyone walk through the
propellers at any time.
TO SECURE THE AIRPLANE
5. Copilot: "FLIGHT CONTROLS."
Copilot locks flight controls while pilot
loosens the locking strap. Use the following
sequence for locking controls: First lock rudder by holding rudder near neutral and slowly moving either way while applying slight
tension to the locking handle. Next lock the
elevators by moving the wheel to the white
line and then slowly back and forth until the
locking pin drops in; lock ailerons by moving
wheel slightly from side to side until the
aileron pin drops in. Do not force the locking
handle. Then place the hook in the handle
and draw the strap up.
Amplified Checklist
1. Copilot: "ENGINES."
Pilot opens throttles until propellers reach
1000 rpm. Copilot puts mixture controls in
"IDLE CUT-OFF"; then pilot opens throttles
slowly, leaving them fully open.
Copilot: "Mixh~res in idle cut-off."
Pilot: "Throttles fully open."
2. Copilot: "SWITCHES."
Copilot closes all switches after propellers
have stopped, first magnetos and radio; then,
when autosyn instruments such as oil, fuel,
etc., have returned to neutral, he turns off
AC power, lights, battery selectors and main
line. Don't cut battery selectors and main
line until all electrical switches are "OFF."
Copilot: "Switches off."
3. Copilot: "WHEEL CHOCKS?"
Pilot checks left wheel chock and copilot
checks right wheel chock in place so brakes
may be released, because heat continues to
expand the expander tubes. Brakes should be
left unlocked until they are cooled off and
the crew chief locks them later.
Pil<,t: "Wheel chock in place left."
Copilot: "Wheel chock in place right."
4. Copilot: "GEAR HANDLE?"
Copilot puts landing gear handle down so
that any hydraulic expansion will tend to
close the gear lock rather than to open it.
Copilot: "Gear handle down."
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Fill out Form 1 and lA before leaving the
airplane and give the engineer full instructions
as to servicing.
Parking at Strange Fields
Airplane and crew are the airplane commander's responsibility. You can delegate duties but
you cannot delegate responsibility. You must
arrange · for proper servicing, securing and
mooring of the airplane. The airplane should
be locked and a guard should be posted if there
is not regular guard protection, even if you
have to hire a civil guard.
Think of your crew's comfort before you
think of your own. See that they have a place
to eat .and sleep; check transportation; arrange
for passes to get them in and out of the field,
and notify them as to probable takeoff time so
they will know when to have the airplane
ready. Fair-minded consideration for your crew
will build loyalty and crew spirit.
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POWER-OFF APPROACH
r
•
A power-off approach proves useful when you
see that you are coming in too high or whenin combat, for instance-you find it necessary
to make a quick descent over high trees or
other obstructions on to a short runway that
begins fairly close to the obstruction.
Your approach is normal in all respects except that you pull in toward the field under
power, high enough to make certain you will
clear the obstacle when you start your glide.
the attitude and direction of the airplane and
then, as you near contact with the runway, reduce power to hold forward speed down to 105
to 110 mph. Don't completely reduce power
until you make contact with the runway.
Although you are making a power-off approach, you are making a power-controlled
landing. Don't try this without power to aid in
your flare-out, or you'll keep right on sinking.
Glide
EMERGENCY
SHORT-FIELD
LANDINGS
From a relatively high position in relation to
the end of the runway, retard throttles completely and lower the nose to maintain an airspeed of 125 mph. This will bring you down at
a relatively steep angle of glide. Trim to ease
fore and aft pressure but avoid over-trimming,
or the airplane will have a strong nose-high
tendency when you advance throttles.
Flare-out
Start your flare-out 100 to 150 feet above the
ground and at the same time increase throttles
to 12" to 14" of manifold pressure to stop the
descent and change the direction from down
to forward. Remember, you must overcome the
tendency of a heavy body to continue moving
in the same direction. Coordinate power with
your flare-out, first building up power to change
96
Never land a B-24 on a short runway except in
absolute emergencies. However, it is important
to know the proper technique if an unexpected
emergency arises. In combat anything can happen and often does.
Procedure
1. Execute downwind and base leg in the
normal manner.
2. Come in toward the field in a normal manner but shoot for a point seyeral hundred feet
short of the runway.
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3. Flare out as if you were going to land
short of the field but add power as you increase
your angle of attack so that the airplane is
dragging in 50 or 60 feet up at 105 to 110 mph.
Control sink by addition or reduction of power.
4. Reduce power to lower the airplane in a
nose-high attitude at a point as near the end of
the runway as possible. Pull power completely
off as soon as wheels touch, but not before.
Remember that the only thing which keeps you
flying is the thrust from your propellers.
Error: Don't build up airspeed by lowering
the nose, or the airplane will tend to have excessive forward speed and float, using up too
much runway. This defeats the purpose of a
short-field landing. The object is to· reduce forward speed but maintain control with power.
5. The moment the main gear is on the concrete get the nosewheel down smoothly but
quickly and hold positive forward pressure on
the wheel to depress the oleo strut fully so
braking won't injure the nose gear assembly.
There is risk of excessive strain on the nosewheel, so build up forward wheel pressure
smoothly and gradually.
.
6. Immediately start to feel out the brakes,
and then use them strongly and intermittently
-not continuously unless absolutely necessary.
GET NOSEGEAR DOWN
SMOOTHLY BUT QUICKLY
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USE BRAKES STRONGLY
AND INTERMITTENTLY
Advantages
This technique brings the airplane to the concrete as near the end of the runway as possible, at minimum forward speed, and permits
the use of brakes quickly. It helps you get
maximum benefit from every inch of runway.
Errors: If overshooting, go around and· come
in for another try. If you have slowed down too
much to have room to go around, but are running off the end of the runway because the
brakes won't hold, you'll have to use quick
judgment of what is best to do. Here are 2
possible courses of action:
1. As you roll from the end of the runway,
get off the brakes and pull as much weight as
possible off the nosewheel. Otherwise it may
dig into soft dirt and collapse.
2. If there are obstructions or a drop-off
ahead, you may choose to bear down hard on
one brake and use a little opposite power to
groundloop the airplane.
Don't get yourself in a spot where you have
to make a choice of this kind.
Parachute Brakes
If you ever have to land on a short runway
without brakes or flaps, a trick devised in combat theaters may come in handy. Several times
B-24's have been landed safely with parachutes
slung from the waist gun mounts to provide
drag. The procedure has varied, but the general method is to fasten the parachute harness
to the gun mounts. As soon as the airplane
touches down, the pilot signals crew mem-bers-by interphone or by a pre-arranged alarm
bell signal-to pull the ripcords. The point of
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drag is far enough aft so that you don't need
to worry about a groundloop even if one parachute fails to open, but some pilots have
had two parachutes fastened on each side, the
second being used if the first doesn't open.
Still another variation calls for two parachutes
on each side to be opened simultaneously. It's
all improvisation, so work out whatever procedure seems best; better still, find some one
who has seen it done and learn from him.
LOW VISIBILITY
OR CLOSE-IN
APPROACH
This approach may be used in case it· is necessary to land in a condition of low visibility
when the normal traffic pattern would carry
you out of sight of the field, when there are no
directional radio aids to aid you in making an
instrument approach, or in case of radio failure.
Also see Low Visibility Approach in T.O. 30lO0B-1.
2. Check in with the tower, know the exact
conditions regarding other traffic, and ~heck
your knowledge of the location and altitudes of
all obstructions in the vicinity of the field. Complete your checklist, get your gear down and
checked, and have an airspeed of 150 mph by
the time you reach the field.
3. Fly upwind along the landing runway to
the opposite end.
4. Lower the flaps to 20° and reduce airspeed
to 135 mph to 140 mph and execute a oneminute timed turn.
5. Fly back on the reciprocal heading and,
opposite the approach end of the runway, start
timing and fly out for 15 seconds.
6. Reduce power at the-end of 15 seconds and
start a I-minute timed turn, descending at the
rate of 200 to 500 feet a minute depending upon
your altitude. Power reduction will be in proportion to desired rate of descent. Start your
final approach checklist halfway through the
turn to obtain proper settings of propellers,
superchargers, etc.
7. Roll out in line with runway, lower full
flaps, and reduce power as necessary.
8. Procedures are the same as a normal landing in all other respects.
Procedure
1. Approach the field in the direction you
are going to land at traffic altitude or as high
. as visibility will permit.
1 MINUTE TIMED TURN
I
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FORCED LANDINGS
Of necessity, the problem of forced landings
not on airports will vary with every situation,
and procedure must be left to the judgment
and resourcefulness of the pilot. Following are
practical suggesti9ns:
1. Radio your position to the nearest facility
at the first indication of an emergency.
2. Always drop bombs over uninhabited
areas or in enemy territory, and secure loose
equipment which might cause injury.
3. Always warn the crew immediately of the
emergency by interphone so they will have
time to get ready to bail out or to take stations
and get braced for a crash landing.
4. Have the engineer turn off fuel sight gage
valves and wing compartment drain line valves
located in forward bomb bay compartment on
lower wing surface near the booster pumps.
5. Bleed the oxygen system if there is time.
6. Retract the ball turret.
7. Have fire extinguishers and first-aid kits
handy to facilitate removal after landing.
8. Do not turn auxiliary hydraulic pump on
if No. 3 engine is operating. If No. 3 is not operating, use auxiliary hydraulic pump to lower
gear and flaps and charge brake accumulators.
Then turn it off before contact to reduce fire
hazard in case the wing tanks are fractured and
leak gas into bomb bays, in vicinity of the openbrush motor.
9. Bail out in preference to making a forced
landing at night.
Positions For Bracing
Flight Deck: Pilot and copilot with safety belts
and shoulder harness securely fastened. Others
on flight deck lying down with feet · braced
against step as much out of the way of the
turret as possible.
Half Deck: As many men as possible squeezed
on half deck, feet braced against forward part
of ship. Remaining men in crash harness or
braced near Station 6.
To land or Not to lan'd?
If you have a choice, don't attempt a forced
landing unless you are reasonably certain of
success.
Over rocky, rough, or excessively soft terrain, always bail out if altitude permits.
It is sometimes possible to make a forced
landing on a road or on a long, level, dry, cultivated field.
Procedure After landing
1. Remove fire extinguishers and first-aid
kits when leaving airplane.
2. Get out as quickly as possible.
3. Count noses and rescue trapped personnel, check injuries and give fir~ aid if needed.
4. Inspect aircraft for fire hazards. Forbid
smoking in vicinity of aircraft. Post guard and
send word by nearest telephone in accordance
with instructions in your flight envelope.
ALWAYS BAIL OUT THE CREW
IF ALTITUDE PERMITS
On any landing where there is serious danger
of over-running a short runway or where other
circumstances make the landing hazardous,
bail out all the crew except the engineer, copilot and pilot if altitude permits. Before doing
so, make certain that each crew member understands how to leave the airplane and how to
use the parachute. (See Bailout.) It is the posi~
tive duty of the airplane commander to hold
ALWAYS LOWER AND LOCK THE LANDING GEAR,
IF POSSIBLE, FOR A FORCED LANDING
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99
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ground drills in the airplane on bailout procedures and emergency bailout signals. Never
leave it up to the crew to decide whether they
will bail out or not.
How to Make a Belly Landing
If all emergency procedures fail to lower the
gear, then it is necessary to make a belly landing. Should you land on or off the runway? Experience has shown that with heavy bombardment aircraft such a landing should be made
on the runway. The reason is that dirt and sod
roll up into balls, fracturing the plane's skin;
then the bottom surfaces serve as a scoop.
Fear of fire has caused pilots to dislike the
idea of belly landings on concrete. If the gas
system is intact and not leaking, such fears are
largely groundless. Moreover, the airplane will
stop as quickly or more quickly on concrete
than on ~od.
Procedure
1. Bail out all crew members except the engineer, copilot and pilot.
·
2. At the earliest moment notify the tower
of your position, that it may be necessary to
make a belly landing on the runway, how much
longer you intend to remain aloft and approximately where and when crew members will
bail out.
Pilot and copilot should securely fasten safety
belts and shoulder harness to avoid being
100
thrown forward on the wheel on impact and ·
thus forcing the nose down. Warn the engineer
to brace himself in a position clear of the top
turret in case it should fall on impact.
3. When you are sure you must make a belly
landing, release bombs in "safe" position over
uninhabited areas at not less than 500 feet.
4. Have the engineer turn off the fuel sight
gage valves and wing compartment drain line
valves located in forward bomb bay compartment on lower wing surface near booster
pumps; drain the lines through the bomb bay
drain valves.
6. Have the engineer check auxiliary hydraulic pump "OFF." Open the flight deck
escape hatch, and also open the waist window
hatches to permit easy access to the rear of the
airplane after lan_d ing.
7. Make a normal approach in all respects.
8. Use a normal flare-out and hold your sink
to a minimum with power, contacting the runway at 105 to 110 mph. Brace against the impact so you won't shove the wheel forward.
Bring the control column back as far as possible and hold it there.
9. Simultaneously on impact copilot should
put all mixture controls in "IDLE CUT-OFF"
and turn master switch "OFF." This cuts off all
switches, b~tteries, etc.
10. When the airplane stops get everyone
out as quickly as possible. Have the engineer
bring fire extinguishers along.
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NO-FLAP LANDINGS
This becomes necessary ,if flaps can not I be
lowered because of mechanical failure or as a
result of enemy fire. The important thing to
remember is that no flaps reduce lift greatly
and increase the stalling speeds in level flight,
in turns, and during fl.are-out.
Procedure
1. Maintain an airspeed of 150 to 155 mph
approaching the fie1d and in traffic, and use the
longest runway wind permits.
2. Make shallow turns because of higher
stalling speeds with no flaps.
3. Fly the final approach descent flatter so
there is less change of attitude in the flare-out.
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Avoid a steep angle of glide. But don't get so
low you have to use excess power and build up
too high an airspeed in order to drag in.
4. Hqld an airspeed of 150 mph on final approach, reducing to 140 mph (for normal load)
during the flare-out. Maintain airspeed 15 to
20 mph faster than known stalling speed for
the load carried.
5. Plan contact as near the end of the runway as possible. When you are low over the
runw~y, start raising the nose and reducing
power very gradually. Carry enough power to
keep sink to a minimum, and don't raise the
nose to stop sink. Contact the ground at 135
to 140 mph and immediately bring throttles
ful.l back.
6. If there is ample runway, raise the nose to
slow airplane down. If the runway is short for
your speed, immediately lower the nose so that
you can start using the brakes.
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LANDING WITH ONE MAIN WHEEL UP,
OTHER MAIN AND NOSEWHEEL DOWN
If this landing is executed properly, there is
much less damage to the airplane and chance
of injury to personnel than in a belly landing.
Know and try all emergency means to lower
the main gear. If you have plenty of gas aboard,
ask the tower to call an expert to tell you how
to get the gear down. If you can't get it down,
use this procedure:
Procedure
1. Bail out all crew members except the engineer, copilot and pilot.
2. Choose a runway on which you can
groundloop without running into a hangar or
parked aircraft, or going over a cliff.
3. Make a normal power approach and trim
for a normal landing.
4. Be sure auxiliary hydraulic pump is off
after brake accumulators are charged.
5. Land at a speed 5 to 10 mph faster than
usual and use power to keep sink to a minimum. Grease 'er on.
6. Land with the wing on the side of the
faulty gear slightly high, and immediately after
contact raise this wing still higher and feather
the outboard engine on the bad-gear side to reduce drag.
. 7. As soon as the main gear is solidly on the
ground, raise the nose to a high angle of attack
to get maximum lift and to reduce speed as
rapidly as possible.
8. As lift decreases, the wing on the faultygear side and the nose gear will tend to drop.
Hold the wing up with ailerons as long as possible; when the wing starts down and touches,
use brake on the good-gear side to stop the
groundloop, which will seldom exceed 45 °.
Damage is usually limited to the outboard propeller, wingtip and vertical fin.
I
LANDING WITH NOSEWHEEL DAMAGED
OR RETRACTED, OR WITH NO BRAKES
ii
- ---~•~•v••~-- - -•
There are a number of situations in which it
will be desirable to hold the nose high throughout the landing roll and bring the airplane to
a stop resting on the tailskid. Examples: When
the nosewheel is damaged or the shimmy
damper faulty; when the nosewheel tire is flat;
when the nosewheel cannot be extended, or
when landing with no brakes.
This procedure requires careful load distribution and precise cooperation from the crew.
It is the airplane commander's duty to brief his
crew thoroughly on the proper procedure for
a landing of this kind.
102
{!a«,tto«, This type of landing is hazardous
in a strong crosswind. It is desirable to use the
longest runway, but the pilot must use judgment in balancing the benefits of a long runway
against the hazard of landing crosswind.
Procedure
1. Hold the airplane in level flight at 150 to
155 mph (160 mph with nose turret) and shift
the load so the airplane will fly level with 11/2 °
nose-down trim. Normally this requires 7 men
stationed between the No. 6 bulkhea'd and the
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waist windows. Advise crew in advance exactly what they are to do on landing.
2. Get perm1ss1on from the tower for an
emergency landing. Request the ~lert crew to
stand by and notify tower you will come to a
full stop on the runway.
3. On final approach see that crew are all at
the predetermined stations in the rear compartment. Carry out the checklist as usual and trim
for a normal landing.
4. Land on the main gear at the slowest safe
airspeed, controlling sink with power, as near
the approach end of the runway as possible.
Keep the nose slightly higher than normal but
do not land on the tailskid.
on the alarm bell. Five or 6 men should be aft
when the landing roll has decreased to approximately 20 mph. Send the 6th and 7th men back
as the airplane comes to rest.
Emphatically tell men that they are to stay
in the extreme rear until specifically ordered
out. Several landings of this kind have been
successfully made, and as soon as the airplane
stopped the crew rushed forward, banging the
nose into the ground and doing as much damage
as a bad landing.
In case the nosewheel is extended but you
have a flat tire, faulty shimmy damper or no
brakes, you can lower the nose by calling one
man forward at a time from the rear of the
airplane to let the nosewheel settle gently to
the ground.
TIRE TROUBLE
5. Hold throttles all the way back, open cowl
flaps, and put inboard mixtures in "IDLE CUTOFF" immediately after landing to get full propeller braking action. If necessary, use outboard engines for directional control or as a
last resort for groundlooping if running out of
runway.
6. Immediately after contact, raise the nose
as high as possible to ease the tailskid down
until it is dragging. Trim tail-heavy to hold the
tailskid on the ground.
7. The moment the tailskid starts to drag,
one crew member will move to the extreme
rear of the airplane. Thereafter one additional
crew member should move aft for each signal
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Blown tires seldom occur unless the airplane is
handled improperly. Then the great weight of
a large airplane and the extreme heat generated by improper use of brakes may blow a
tire. If this occurs, the inherent directional
stability of the tricycle gear is an important aid
to the pilot. Following are the best procedures
to use in case of a blown tire.
Blowout on Takeoff
This is usually caused by having the feet up
on the brakes during takeoff or braking the
wheels too soon after takeoff. Then, if the airplane settles momentarily so that the tires
touch, one or both tires may blow out.
If a blowout occurs early in the takeoff run
and there is room enough, throttle back and
stop. Use brakes with caution, or the flat tire
will tear apart and throw rubber all around.
· Don't let the noise and vibration confuse you.
If you are going too fast to stop, continue the
takeoff. With an airplane not too heavily loaded
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and good airspeed, you may be able to climb
satisfactorily with wheels down. In that case,
complete the takeoff procedure in the normal
manner-but leave the wheels down to avoid
danger of their becoming jammed in the gear
wells. Keep 5° to 9° of flaps down for additional lift. You can fly traffic safely at 150 mph.
If you can't make altitude with wheels down,
then raise the gear, but be sure the wheels are
braked so that loose rubber won't jam in the
gear wells. Notify the tower that you are going
around for a flat-tire landing.
Landing With One Main Gear Tire Blown
Repeated successful landings have been made
in the B-24 with tires flat and with little or no
other damage to the airplane.
Procedure
1. Notify the tower that you have a flat tire
and that you will make a full-stop landing on
th~ runway.
2. If possible, get permission to use a runway with the wind quartering_from the goodtire side. But avoid drift or you'll blow the
other tire, too.
3. Cut sink to a minimum. Control it with
power.
4. Upon contact, get the nose down as soon as
possible, and hold forward pressure on the
nosewheel. Th~n the directional stability of the
tricycle gear will help hold the airplane
straight.
5. As the airplane slows down it will tend to
turn more into the blown tire. Use a little
power on the flat-tire side with light braking
action on the good tire side to maintain a
straight-ahead path.
6. Keep the airplane where it stops until the
wheel is changed.
104
Note: Avoid using brakes on the flat-tire side;
it will tear the •tire up, increase vibration, and
won't help in stopping.
Landing With 2 Main Gear Tires Blown
In this case the procedure is approximately the
same as with one tire blown except that you
should have the auxiliary hydraulic .pump off
before contact and land as directly into the
wind as possible. Again lower the nose as soon
after contact as possible and push the wheel
forward, to get the weight forward on the nosewheel tire and to get the wing at a negative
angle of attack. The airplane will vibrate,
thump, shake and throw rubber, but you will
have good directional control. Stay off the
brakes as long as possible. If you must use
them, do so. sparingly. For added braking action, put inboard engines in "IDLE CUT-OFF."
Blowout As You Land
If a tire blows out as you land, stay off the
brake on that side. Ease the nosewheel down
quickly (but never slam it down) and you
should obtain directional control. If necessary,
brake slightly on the good-tire side and add a
little power on the outboard engine on the fl.attire side. The usual mistake is to slam on both
brakes too soon. This jerks the nose down and
rips the flat tire to pieces. The thing to remember is that you always obtain greater directional control just as soon as you get the nosewheel solidly on the ground. However, in
case the flat tire balls up and locks the wheel,
it may be necessary to use considerable power
and brake to avoid a severe groundloop.
Nosewheel Tire Blown
See Landing With Nosewheel Damaged or Retracted or Without Brakes.
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DO YOU KNOW YOUR POWER PLANT?
The supercharged power plant of the modern
airplane is indeed a complex machine. With
automatic devices such as constant speed propellers, electronic supercharger controls, and
carburetors for controlling fuel-air mixtures,
· it is a far cry from the aircraft engine of 20
years ago.
In this discussion of its operation, it is essential first to consider the power plant as a whole,
since when one factor in the intricate system
changes, other factors-even those apparently
remote-may also be affected. For clarity's sake,
the discussion will deal chiefly with the electronic turbo-supercharger control, rather than
the early type with oil regulated control.
To gain a be~ter understanding of the operation of a supercharged engine, and thus help
clear up the existing confusion about manifold
pressure and its influence on engine performance, let us first consider the accompanying
diagram. It shows the location of the various
parts of the power plant which affect manifold
pressure during the complete cycle of opera-
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tion, and shows how all factors work together
to produce the manifold pressure indicated on
the instrument panel.
The first unit in the cycle is the air filter. This
removes dust and fine sand from the air entering the power plant, preventing the rapid wear
such grit would cause on moving engine parts.
A slight drop in pressure results from the passage of air through the filter, but when the
turbo control is working the turbo compressor
rpm is increased to compensate for the drop.
At high altitudes, however, you should turn
the filters off, or the turbine will reach overspeed at a lower altitude than normal.
Next is the turbo-driven compressor. The
amount of pressure boost it delivers depends
upon its rpm and upon inlet pressure. Four
factors affect the rpm of this unit: Exhaust pressure in the turbine nozzle box; exhaust gas
temperature; atmospheric pressure and temperature, and quantity of air flow through the
compressor.
Leaving the compressor, air passes through
105
�-
,a
0
m
0-
"'
-t
,a
n
-t
m
C
MANIFOLD PRESSURE IS AFFECTED BY
THROTTLE POSITION AND ENGINE
RPM AS WELL AS TURBO BOOST
AMPLIFIER
l i SVOLT
400---
MIN JUNCTION BOX
TUCjjOR
CIRCULAR DIAGRAM OF AN EXHAUST DRIVEN SUPERCHARGER ENGINE
4 INTERCOOLER SHUTTERS
9 INTAKE MANIFOLD
14 WASTE GATE STOP
A INCOMING AIR PRESSURE
IA CARBURETOR AIR SCOOP
S CARBURETOR
10 PROPELLER GOVERNOR
15 HEAT BAFFLE
B TURBO OUTPUT PRESSURE
18 INTERCOOLER AIR SCOOP
6 THROTTLE
11 EXHAUST DUCT
16 WORM GEAR DRIVE
2 TURBO COMPRESSOR
7 INTERNAL BLOWER
12 TURBINE WHEEL
17 FLEXIBLE COUPLINGS
C CARBURETOR INLET
PRESSURE
3 INTERCOOLER
B GEAR DRIVE FOR
INTERNAL BLOWER
13 WASTE GATE
18 EXPANSION JOINT
1 AIR FILTER
,a
m
"'
-t
,a
n
-t
m
C
D MANIFOLD PRESSURE
D
ED
•
ATMOSPHERIC AIR
COMPRESSED AIR
EXHAUST GASES
�,
the intercoo\er. Since this is an integral part of
the induction system, a pressure drop occurs
here whether the intercooler shutters are open
or not. For full power conditions, this drop
amounts to approximately l" Hg.
The regulator sensing unit, or Pressuretrol,
is connected to the induction system between
the intercooler and the carburetor. It reacts
to the carburetor inlet pressure (CIP), or upper
deck pressure. This not the manifold pressure,
is the pressure the pilot selects with the turbo
boost selector (TBS), which operates through
the Pressuretrol to control the waste gate position and produce the required CIP. (On the old
type oil regulatE:;d turbos, there is no Pressuretrol, and the CIP has no effect on waste gate
setting.)
Since the regulator reacts to the CIP, it is
important that the ducts and joints of the entire
system be tight. Remember that altitude increases the pressure difference between the
inside and outside of the system; a leak that is
not apparent during ground operation or at
low altitude will cause a greater pressure loss
at altitude. Leaks will cause excessive "droop"
and unstable power, and will make the turbo
overspeed control cut in below the normal altitude.
The next unit in the system is the carburetor,
where the position of the throttle controls the
manifold pressure. When the throttle is at its
optimum position ( offering minimum resistance
to air flow), the manifold pressure will be at a
maximum if other factors do not change. The
optimum position of the throttle butterfly is
not wide open, but several degrees from this
point. Opening it beyond the optimum position
may cause an instability and loss of manifold
pressure. If the open-throttle stops are set so
that the throttle cannot open to the optimum
position, an excessive pressure drop will exist
across the carburetor. In order to obtain takeoff power, the regulator would have to be recalibrated to give a higher induction pressure.
(The regulator should not be re-calibrated to
offset incorrectly adjusted throttle stops, however.) This condition will exist at all altitudes
and will cause the turbine to overspeed at a
lower altitude.
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Another function of the carburetor is to
regulate the mixture of fuel and air, maintaining the weight ratio constant in the normal
operating range. Manual mixture adjustment is
provided for high and low power conditions.
Changing from automatic rich to automatic
lean doesn't affect manifold pressure appreciably, but excessive carburetor inlet pressure
affects the mixture. Carburetors on B-24 air- ·
planes are designed to maintain a constant
fuel-air ratio for variable inlet pressures up to
31" Hg. Above this pressure the mixture becpmes lean; if carried too high, this causes detonation and high cylinder-head temperatures.
The next unit in the system is the internal
blower. Since this blower is driven directly
by the engine, any change in engine rpm causes
the blower speed to change. This causes a
change in the boost added to the lower carburetor deck pressure to give the indicated manifold pressure.
At higher engine speeds with wide open
throttle, the boost from this blower is a large
part of the total manifold pressure, and a small
change in engine rpm, resulting from a sluggish
propeller governor, will bring a noticeable
change in manifold pressure. (This effect is
common in low temperatures, which cause the
oil in the propeller dome to congeal and slow
the rate of chan,ge in prop pitch. You can correct this by working the prop governor back
and forth a few times to send warm engine
oil through the dome.)
If the engine rpm is reduced excessively, the
turbine will have insufficient gases to operate
on and a complete collapse of the cycle may
occur. This gives the impression of improper
turbo-supercharger regulation. When it occurs,
the engine rpm should be increased.
The next part of the system is the intake
manifold, which obviously must be leak-proof
if you are to get stable pressures. The engine
itself comes next. Since manifold pressure
depends upon a uniform flow of exhaust gas to
drive the turbine, it follows that any flaw in
engine operation-faulty valve action, faulty
ignition, or changes in rpm-will alter the
manifold pressure by causing fluctuations in
exhaust pressure. Ignition is a common cause
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of unstable manifold pressure at altitude,
because decreased atmospheric pressure leads
to increased leakage throughout the electrical
system. The ignition system must be in perfect
condition to offset this tendency at altitude.
The exhaust duct, turbine, and waste gate
complete the supercharger system proper. The
position of the waste gate controls the speed
of the turbine by determining the amount of
exhaust back pressure and, consequently, the
amount of exhaust flow through the turbine
wheel. The TBS knob and the Pressuretrol, as
already explained, act upon the waste gate
motor to control the position of the waste gate
by reference to CIP. A further control of turbine speed is exercised by the overspeed con-·
trol feature of the governor.
The parts of the regulating mechanism which
can cause hunts in manifold pressure are the
governor and the Pressuretrol. Improper functioning of these units will be evident at all
altitudes whenever boost is being used.
To prevent turbine speed from overshooting
its limit during power changes at altitude, the
overspeed control opens the waste gate rapidly
108
to relieve exhaust back pressure, and then
closes it at a slower rate to establish the limiting turbo speed. Since turbine speed, instead
of pressure, is controlled, a slight instability
in manifold pressure will exist at higher
powers. The fluctuation warns you when the
overspeed control takes effect.
Note: Manifold pressure should be reduced
slightly whenever the overspeed control goes
into operation. The device is designed to work
when the turbine reaches maximum rated
speed plus 10 % . This overspeed rating should
be limited to 5 minutes, as continued operation
would greatly shorten the life of the turbine
wheel. Reduce the turbine rpm about 10 % by
reducing manifold pressure approximately 1.5"
Hg, and continue to reduce it by 1.5" for each
1000 feet you climb above that pofnt.
The foregoing discussion is a general explanation of how your engine works. The material
which follows deals in greater detail with the
individual parts of the power plant.
Turbo-superchargers
The turbo-superchargers are installed behind
the mount support of each engine, below the
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wing's lower surface. On early series B-24's,
type B-2 turbos are used, while late B-24's
have type B-22 turbos. The two types are almost identical in appearance, but differ in their
limitations.
The B-22 has a higher maximum rpm, and
therefore a higher critical altitude, than the
B-2. At normal rated power-2550 rpm and
46" Hg.-the B-22 has a maximum wheel speed
of 24,000 rpm, compared to 21,300 rpm for the
B-2. At military power-2700 rpm and 49"these speeds rise to 26,400 for the B-22 and
22,400 for the B-2, but use of this power is
limited to 5 minutes. Because of the greater
wheel speed, the B-22 turbo has a critical altitude of 30,000 feet, as against 27,000 feet for the
B-2 turbo.
When you reach the critical altitude of the
type of turbo you are using ( or when the overspeed control takes effect on the B-22 type,
producing fluctuations in manifold pressure),
reduce manifold pressure 1.5" for every additional 1000 feet you climb at maximum manifold pressure. If you are climbing at less than
the maximum pressure, you can raise the critical altitude 1000 feet for each 1.5" that your
manifold pressure is below the maximum.
Thus, if the critical altitude is 30,000 feet at 46",
.it will be 32,000 feet at 43", etc.
Controls: The superchargers are regulated
either through the engine oil pressure system
or by electronic control. With the oil-regulated
system, used on early B-24's, the pilot regulates the turbos by means of 4 levers on the
left side of the pedestal. The levers control the
operation of the waste gates on the 4 engines
through the oil type regulators.
The electronic control is used on all late
B-24's and is replacing the oil-regulated type
on most early aircraft. In this system, the TBS
knob is the manual control unit. It is mounted
on the pilot's pedestal in the space former iy
occupied by the 4 turbo levers. The TBS unit
contains 4 small calibrated potentiometers
which require adjustments only to compensate
for small differences in engine or turbo performance. Once the calibrators ar'e set, the pilot
controls the turbo boost on all 4 engines simultaneously by turning the control knob.
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Electric Energy
The source of all electric energy used by the
turbo-supercharger control system is one of
the airplane's 400-cycle inverters mounted
under the flight deck, on the right side. Although 2 such inverters are installed in the
airplane, only one is used at a time. Either
inverter supplies the 115-volt, 400-cycle alternating current needed by the electronic control system.
lntercoolers
Heat from compression of the air by the turbosuperchargers must be dissipated before it
reaches the engine; otherwise, the normal carburetor intake temperature limits will be
exceeded. This is accomplished by in:ercoolers
or radiators in the air intake duct between the
turbo-supercharger and the carburetor. Shutters on the intercoolers are provided to regulate
109
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the carburetor air temperature. The shutters
have 2 positions-full open and full closed.
Extreme caution should be exercised when
using intercooler shutters, and carburetor air
and cylinder-head temperatures must be
watched closely.
limit. The other part, the accelerometer, anticipates the pressure increase from turbo acceleration and provides a signal to start opening the
waste gate in time to prevent the overshooting
of manifold pressure.
The Amplifier
The amplifier is an intermediate unit between
the control units and the waste gate motor. It
receives two kinds of signals from the other
control units. One kind calls for rotation of the
waste gate motor to close the gate; the other,
for rotation to open it. After amplifying the signal, the amplifier determines the direction of
movement called for and controls the power
delivered to the waste gate motor accordingly.
If the amplifier of any one of the 4 turbos
fails, the waste gate remains fixed in the position it held when the amplifier went out. It is
possible, however, to adjust all 4 turbos to any
desired manifold pressure even if only one of
the 4 amplifiers, or the spare, is working. To do
so, it is necessary to disconnect the cannon
plugs from the amplifiers (accessible from the
1. Wiper
3. Reference Bellows
2. Potentiometer
4. Operating Bellows
5. Vent and Drain
The Pressuretrol
Control of the pressure in the induction system
is accomplished automatically by the Pressuretrol. This unit measures electrically the pressure of the air supplied by the turbo-supercharger to the carburetor, and controls the
automatic operation of the system to maintain
whatever manifold pressure the pilot has selected, regardless of the changes in the atmospheric pressure caused by variations in the airplane's altitude. It consists of a voltage-dividing
potentiometer operated by a pair of bellows,
connected to the induction system near the carburetor inlet.
The Turbo Governor
The governor is a dual safety device driven by
a flexible drive shaft which is geared to the
turbo-supercharger. One part of the mechanism, called the overspeed control, prevents the
turbo from exceeding its safe operating speed
110
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bomb bay) . Then remove the dead amplifier for
the turbo you wish to set up, and replace it
with the good amplifier, reconnecting the cannon plug. (The pilot must be on the alert for
any turbo fluctuations, keeping his hand on the
throttle to control sudden changes, until the
amplifier warms up.) From that point on, the
procedure is normal, except that when the
turbo is properly set up, the cahnon plug is
again disconnected, freezing the waste gate in
TURBO-SUPERCHARGER AND
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Exhaust Tail Pipe
Turbo-supercharger Cooling Cap
Turbo-supercharger Bucket Wheel
Air Duct from Supercharger to lntercooler
Exhaust Waste Gate
Waste Gate Control Linkage
Exhaust Tail Pipe Outlet
lntercooler Shutter Control Linkage
lntercooler Motor Control Box
lntercooler Motor
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REGULATOR
the desired position. This procedure can be used
in flight or, if necessary, to set up desired power
for takeoff.
The Waste Gate Motor
When the waste gate motor operates the waste
gate in response to the control signals, it also
operates a balancing potentiometer which produces a signal opposed to the original control
signal. When the rotation of the motor is
enough to make the 2 signals exactly neutralize
SYSTEMS
11. Turbo-supercharger Alternate Air Intake Duct
12. Auxiliary Wi~g Fuel Tank Manifold Connection
13.
14.
15.
16.
l7.
18.
19.
Alternate Air Intake Filter Box
Waste Gate Control Motor
Electric Cable
Turbo Regulator Governor
Turbo-supercharger Air Intake Duct
Turbo-supercharger
Oil Cooler
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each other, the power from the amplifier is cut
off, and the waste gate motor stops.
Operating Instructions
Electronic Turbo Control
1. Engage the System-After turning on the airplane's battery switches, the main line switch,
and one inverter switch, allow 2 minutes for the
amplifier to warm up. The control system will
then respond to the setting of the turbo boost
selector.
~- Before Starting Engines-Set turbo boost
selector at "0." Turn on auxiliary power unit.
Warning: Never turn inverter off while engines
are running, since tJ:ie control system is dependent on the AC power for operation.
3. Taxiing-Set dial at "O" unless turbo boost
is needed.
4. Engine Run-up-Set propeller governors
for takeoff rpm and check the manifold pressure on each engine separately by advancing
throttle to full open position. Then tum dial of
turbo boost selector to the desired position
(''8" with Grade 100). If the manifold pressure
on any engine fails to come up to within 1" of
the takeoff pressure with full rpm, tum dial to
"O" and check the engine rpm and manifold
pressure without turbo boost. This will show
whether the low manifold pressure is caused
by faulty engine operation or by insufficient
turbo boost. Also check DC voltage on the voltmeter, with generators on.
. Note: If engine does not attain full takeoff
rpm, manifold pressure will be correspondingly
less. ( A 100 rpm deficiency in engine speed will
produce 1 ½ inches drop in manifold pressure.)
5. Takeoff-Turn turbo boost selector to desired position (''8" with Grade 100) and then
open the throttles.
Note: Be sure generators are on and operating during and after takeoff; otherwise complete electrical failure may result from low batteries causing failure ·o f electronic control.
6. Climbing-After takeoff, turn knob counterclockwise until desired manifold pressure is
reached. Decrease rpm to desired value. Re-set
manifold pressure with turbo boost selector if
necessary. For climbing after cruising, increase
rpm first; then advance throttles and increase
manifold pressure to the desired value by turn112
ing turbo boost selector clockwise.
7. Cruising-Use dial to select manifold pressure. If manifold pressure cannot be lowered
sufficiently with the knob, pull back on the
throttles. Decrease rpm to desired value, and
then, if necessary, re-set the manifold pressure
with throttles and dial.
If icing conditions prevail, close intercoolers
and operate as close to full throttle as possible.
If ice has already form~d ( indicated by reduced
manifold pressure) open throttle and increase
power settings until manifold pressure returns
to normal. Watch cylinder-head temperatures
closely when intercooler shutters are closed.
8. Emergency Power-Use only with Grade
100 fuel. Put mixture in "AUTO-RICH." Increase rpm· to maximum. Open throttles to the
stops. Press dial stop release and turn dial
clockwise to "10."
Caution: Use only under extreme emergency
conditions.
No-boost Ground Run-up
.
The check recommended in 'Item 4 of the foregoing procedures is an important step in determining engine efficiency, and as such calls
for fuller explanation. In a normal ground runup, engine speed is increased by advancing the
throttle, with the prop remaining fixed at minimum pitch. Since prop pitch does not change,
engine rpm above 1200 increases directly with
manifold pressure. At full throttle, maximum
rpm, the boost from the internal blower is a
major factor in manifold pressure. Any engine
deficiency which reduces horsepower also reduces rpm, and in turn causes manifold pressure to fall off and further decreases horsepower and rpm. The no-boost run-up, therefore,
serves as a good indication of the condition of
the engine when the manifold pressure and rpm
are compared to those of an engine known to
be operating properly. In making the comparison, it is important to take atmospheric pressure and wind direction and velocity int_o consideration. Because of the 'change in prop loading, a rise in wind velocity from zero to 25 mph
may alter engine speed by 50 rpm. In the range
of engine speeds above 1400 rpm, rpm may be
changed by altering prop pitch, keeping the
throttle position fixed.
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Overspeeding Turbo-supercharger
This occurs infrequently but usually on takeoff. An overspeeding turbo is evidenced by the
manifold pressure quickly going sky-high. A
turbo can overspeed during takeoff and then
settle down immediately afterward and continue to operate normally.
If you know a turbo is overspeeding during
the first third of takeoff, it is best not to take off
if you have room in which to stop.
Remedy With Electronic Control
Don't feather with an overspeeding turbo. Reduce manifold pressure with throttle. You can't
dial back supercharger setting or you will lose
manifold pressure on all 4 engines.
With the electronic supercharger control, a
runaway supercharger is usually directly traceable to amplifier failure or insufficient electric
power. Amplifier tubes control the opening and
closing of the waste gate, and if the tube that
controls opening of the waste gate is burned
out, the supercharger may overspeed. There is
a spare amplifier aboard and it can be changed
·as soon as you reach a safe altitude.
Caution: Reduce power on the affected engine when changing the amplifier, if circumstances permit, and give it 2 minutes to warm
up. Then you can resume power.
Never shut the inverter off for any length of
time without reduc,ing power before bringing
inverter on again. (Avoid turning inverter off
unless in an emergency.)
Remedy With Oil-Regulated Control
On the oil-regulated type turbo, overspeeding
usually results from clogging of the regulator
balance lines or from congealed oil. The tendency to overspeed will usually be ~vident when
you are setting turbos during run-up.
Don't feather. You are getting power from
the engine, and you can use it. For the first step,
you have two choices. Either pull back the
supercharger control or reduce throttle to the
desired manifold pressure. Reducing throttle is
better because if the supercharger settles down
after takeoff, it is easier to re-set the throttle
than the supercharger control.
If the turbo wheel continues to overspeed
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with throttle retarded, pull back the supercharger control and control power with throttle.
Carburetor and Mixture Controls
The R-1830-43 engine is equipped with the
Bendix Stromberg injection carburetor. The
R-1830-65 engine has the Chandler-Evans Company (Ceco) carburetor. Metering of the fuel is
accomplished by air flow through the carburetor venturis. Four positions of the pilot's mixture control lever can be used in operating the
Bendix Stromberg carburetor: "IDLE CUTOFF," "AUTO-LEAN," "AUTO-RICH," and
"FULL (EMERGENCY) RICH." With the
Ceco carburetor, only the first three of these
positions have any effect; the "FULL RICH"
position on the control quadrant does not work.
On all mixture control quadrants, however, the
"FULL RICH" position is safety-wired off from
the other three positions. An explanation of the
control positions, and their effects, follows:
Automatic Rich-The usual operating position for mixture control, "AUTO-RICH" maintains the necessary fuel-air ratio for all flight
conditions. At high power, the proportion of
fuel to air is relatively high, to suppress detonation and assist in cooling. Between normal rated
and cruising powers the proportion of fuel is
decreased, so that in the cruising range fuel
consumption is reduced to the minimum required to prevent detonation and over-heating
and to provide good acceleration.
Automatic Lean-"AUTO-LEAN" is an alternate operating position of the mixture control,
resulting in leaner fuel-air ratios than automatic rich. During the favorable conditions of
stabilized level flight or a cruising descent,
automatic lean may be used in the cruising
power range when fuel economy is of primary
importance and when cooling is adequate. Don't
try to use intermediate settings beyond the
"AUTO-LEAN" position. You gain nothing by
any such attempt at manual leaning of the
mixture.
Full Rich-"FULL RICH" setting of the mixture control renders inactive the altitude compensating device built into the carburetor to
compensate for changes in the density of the
air flowing through the venturis and keep the
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fuel-air ratio constant. "FULL RICH," in reality, is merely a manually enriched mixture, and
should only be used when the automatic mixture control unit gives evidence of faulty operation. Despite its other name of "EMERGENCY RICH," "FULL RICH" actually results in a loss of power whenever it is used.
Torquemeter tests show, for example, that at
8500 feet, with 35" manifold pressure, 2500 rpm,
and "AUTO-RICH," an engine develops 935
Hp. With the same settings and "FULL RICH,"
the engine develops only 775 HP-a loss of
160 Hp.
Idle Cut-Off-Moving the mixture control
past automatic lean to the end of its travel will
stop all fuel flow, regardless of fuel pressure.
"IDLE CUT-OFF" is intended for stopping the
engine •without the hazard of backfiring.
Mixture st~~ngth is increased when operating below the cruising power range. This enrichment provides easier starting and the dependable acceleration needed in taxiing and
the approach for a landing. Fuel metering in
this power range is accomplished largely by
throttle opening.
The accelerating pump is operated by, and in
proportion to, the momentary changes in air
pressure in the manifold entranc~. The accelerating pump is not connected with the throttle or throttle controls. Hence, when the engine
is not running, no fuel is pumped from the carburetor when the throttle is moved, no matter
how rapidly. You can not prime by pumping
the throttle.
Carburetor Icing
This is the most talked of and least understood type of icing. It is generally agreed that
there is no such thing as a non-icing carburetor.
However, carburetor ice and the remedies ·for
it differ with each type of aircraft because of
the difference in carburetors. Inductio.r:i-system
ice can occur in the B-24. It is more likely to be
refrigerated ice than atmospheric ice.
Atmospheric ice can build up on any surface
directly in the path of the intake air, such as
the intercooler, carburetor butterfly valve, or
the angle of the carburetor adapter ( usually in
the order named).
114
When air is pouring through the induction
system, sufficient temperature drop may cause
precipitation of moisture. If the temperature is
low enough in the system, the moisture will
freeze and adhere to the closest surface. Formation of this ice anywhere in the induction system can block off the flow of air to the engine
and can cause almost instantaneous engine
failure.
Carburetor ice in the B-24 can occur during
otherwise ideal flying conditions. It can occur
when it is snowing or sleeting. It can occur any
time carburetor air temperature is within the
icing range. Watch your carburetor air temperature when relative humidity is high.
Know your induction system and what happens to the air pouring through it. Within 3
hours' time your induction sys'i..em will use air
weighing as much as the airplane.
Detection of Carburetor Ice-Icing can progress almost to the point of engine failure before it is indicated on your instruments unless
you are alert.
1. Know your carburetor air temperature. If
it drops down to 15°C when humidity is high
+
HIGH
HUMIDITY
ICING
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take measures to bring it back up. Safe range
is 15° to 35°C. Above 35°C there is danger of
detonation.
2. Note any drop in manifold pressure. A low
carburetor air temperature, together with a
drop in manifold pressure, suggests carburetor
icing. (Do not mistake a drop in manifold pressure caused by change in altitude for carburetor
ice.)
3. If you have low carburetor air temperature, plus a sudden drop in manifold pressure,
plus a rough-running engine-then, brother,
. you probably already have carburetor ice.
Preventive Measures
If you are flying at cruising power in conditions
where there is danger of carburetor icing, close
the intercooler shutters and operate as close to_
full throttle as possible. If ice has already
formed (its formation will be indicated by reduced manifold pressure) , open the throttles
and increase engine power settings until manifold pressure returns to normal.
Caution: Check cylinder-head temperature
gages frequently whenever you are operating
with the intercooler shutters closed. Excessive
cylinder-head temperatures cause detonation.
Function of lntercooler Shutters
When the turbo compresses air, it generates
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heat in the air. This air is going to the carburetor and would normally be too hot, so it
passes through the intercooler. When intercooler shutters are open, cool air, taken in
through the air duct in the engine cowl, cools
the hot air pouring through the intercoolers.
When you close the shutters, the intercooler
has no cooling effect so that the blast of hot air
from superchargers goes uncooled to the carburetor, melts ice and very rapidly builds up
the carburetor air temperature. If this goes too
high,. you get detonation and engine failure.
Closing your intercooler shutters, obviously,
will not raise your carburetor air temperature
unless turbos are operating.
No Carburetor Air Temperature Gage: If
your plane is not equipped with carburetor air
temperature gages, you are short the most important instruments for detecting carburetor
ice and for observing the effects of intercooler
shutters. It becomes even more vital that you
know relative humidity of the air through
which you are flying. Avoid closing intercooler
shutters unless you know there is danger of
carburetor ice and then close them intermittently for only a few seconds at a time. Leave
them open the instant you note a rise in cylinder-head temperatures or a recovery of manifold pressure.
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POWER SETTINGS
Grade 91 Fuel-Specification ANF-26
OPERATION
SETTING
MIXTURES
RPM
MP
TIME LIMIT
42"
Auto-rich
2700
Takeoff
Max.
Auto-rich
2550
Max.
38"
Climb
Desired
Auto-rich
2550
35"
Climb
1650-2100*
30"
Auto-lean
Cruise
Suggested
Auto-lean
30"
2000
Local Cruise
*Maximum and minimum rpm in ~uto-lean. Do not exceed 30" manifold
5 Minutes
1 Hour
Continuous
Continuous
Continuous
pressure.
BMEP
HP
169
160
147
1060
950
870
131
610
Grade 100 Fuel-Specification ANFi-28
OPERATION
Takeoff
Climb (Normal
Rated Power)
Climb
Cruise
Cruise.
Cruise
SETTING
MIXTURES
RPM
MP
TIME LIMIT
BMEP
HP
Max.
Auto-rich
2700
49"
5 Minutes
192
1200
Max.
Desired
Max.
Max.
Desired
Auto-rich
Auto-rich
Auto-rich
Auto-lean
Auto-lean
2550
2550
2325
2200
2000
46"
41"
35"
32"
30"
Continuous*
Continuous
Continuous
Continuous
Continuous
186
167
152
140
131
1100
990
820
715
610
*Cyl. head temp. not to exceed 232°C. For temperatures of 232° to 260°, time limi~ is 1 hour.
DEFINITIONS OF RATINGS
Takeoff Rating: This is the maximum power
and engine speed permissible for takeoff and
should be maintained only long enough to clear
obstructions.
Military Power: This is the maximum power
permitted for the military services with less regard for long life of the engine than for immediate tactical needs. Military rating is comparable to takeoff power with manifold pressures
modified to suit altitude conditions, and may be
used for 5 minutes in any attitude of flight.
Normal Rated Power: This is frequently referred to as a normal maximum rating) or maximum except takeoff power. It is the maximum
power1 at which an engine may be operated continuously for emergency or high performance
operation in climb or level flight if cylinder116
head temperatures do not exceed 232 °C.
Maximum Power and RPM for Cruising: This
rating stipulates both the maximum power and
maximum rpm permissible for continuous operation with the mixture control in automatic
lean. The proper combination of rpm and manifold pressure for the particular horsepower,
load and altitude desired can be determined
from the cruising control charts.
In takeoff emergencies, you can get 1350 Hp
from your engines by using auto-rich, 2700 rpm,
and 56" manifold pressure. These settings give
you a BMEP (brake mean effective pressure)
of 216. Use this emergency power only if you
have to, and then only for the shortest possible
time-never more than 5 minutes. Don't go into
full (emergency) rich; you sacrifice power if
you do.
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SEQUENCE OF POWER CHANGES
On the other hand, too rich a mixture interferes with the proper expansion and firing of
the gases and results in overloading, torching,
and loss of power.
Relationship of Man!fold Pressure and RPM
,
There are ironclad rules regarding the sequence
for increasing or reducing power. Failure to
follow the sequence can cause premature firing,
excessive pressures, .overheating, detonation,
and engine failure. Three inter-related elements are involved in any power change,
namely: mixture, manifold pressure, and rpm.
The constant-speed propeller does exactly what
its name · i:rp.plies. The propeller governors
function so that if propellers are set for a given
rpm, governors automatically change the pitch
of the propellers to keep them turning at the
given rpm. Thus, if a propeller governor is set
for 1900 rpm ~nd manifold pressure is increased, the governors increase the pitch of
propellers so they take a larger bite and continue to turn at 1900 rpm; this puts a larger
load on the power plant and builds up pressure
in the ~ylinders. This is permissible within
specified limits, but as pressure increases heat
increases. An increase in the speed of propellers
gives an outlet for the extra power being produced.
Relationship of Mixture and Manifold Pressure
Brake Mean Effective Pressure
"AUTO-LEAN," for example, automatically
reduces the proportion of fuel to air to provide
efficient firing with minimum expenditure of
fuel. However, as manifold pressure is increased (increasing the pressure in the cylinders), there is a point beyond which the excess pressure will cause hot, hard, and fast firing, with detonation and overheating. If the
fuel-air ratio is richer, the same manifold pressure will produce slower, stronger firing, with
less heat. That's why richer mixtures must be
used at higher power settings. '
The brake mean effective pressure (BMEP) is
the average pressure within the cylinder of an
engine during the power stroke of the piston.
As the pressure within the cylinder is increased, more heat is developed because of the
energy of compression. If the pressure and
temperature increase sufficiently, detonation
occurs.
The formula for determining BMEP for
1830-43. or 65 P & W engines is:
BMEP = 433 X BHP
RPM
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STEPS FOR INCREASING
P·OWER
3. Throttles.
Pilot advances throttles as the rpm is increased. If more power than full throttle is required, superchargers are advanced.
1. Mixture Controls.
Copilot sets the mixture controls to "AUTORICH" (if necessary) at pilot's signal. Reason:
Maximum setting in "AUTO-LEAN" is 32"
manifold pressure and 2200 rpm with Grade 100
fuel, and 30" and 2100 rpm with Grade 91 fuel.
It is obvious that if power is to be increased
beyond these maximums the mixture should
first be set in "AUTO-RICH."
2. Propellers.
Copilot increases rpm to desired setting. This
should precede the manifold pressure increase
to eliminate the danger of an excessive BMEP
(brake mean effective pressure) and resultant
detonation.
118
4. Superchargers
With electronic control, advance the TBS
knob. With oil regulator, the supercharger controls may all be advanced together, but it is
advisable to set them one at a time, starting
with the dead-engine side if operating with a
dead engine. Always use full throttle before
applying supercharger boost. Reason: A partially closed throttle will create a back pressure in the induction system resisting turbo
pressure. This causes a rise in carburetor air
temperature with possible power loss and
detonation.
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STEPS FOR REDUCING
POWER·
before propellers in order to keep BMEP on
the low side of safe limits and to prevent
detonation.
3. Propellers.
Copilot decreases rpm at command of pilot.
This must follow throttles. A sufficiently low
rpm permits mixtures to be brought to "AUTOLEAN.''
1. Superchargers
To reduce power, pilot first slowly retards
supercharger controls-TBS or levers: slowly
in order to prevent ·cracking of the turbo nozzle
box by too rapid cooling, supercharge:rs before
throttles to prevent back pressure in induction
system.
2. Throttles.
Pilot retards throttles before reducing rpm. ·
Reason: Manifold pressures must be reduced
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4. Mixture Controls.
Copilot puts mixture controls in "AUTOLEAN" if new power setting falls within limits
of manifold pressure, rpm and cylinder-head
temperatures. Wait until engines are cool before going into "AUTO-LEAN," because a hot
engine increases the tendency to detonate.
119
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CAUSES OF
ENGINE FAILURE
In ·considering engine failures, always remember there are three things that make an engine
run-fuel, oil, and ignition. Failure of any of
these three systems, plus structural failure, are
the only things which can cause the loss of an
eng~ne.
Structural failure can be mechanical-the result of faulty construction or maintenance-but
most of the time it is induced. Accident analyses show that pilot error far outruns mechanical failure in bringing about engine troubles.
Here are a few examples of stupid pilot errors
which induce engine failure; avoid them.
1. Failure to Know Gas Consumption. Example: A pilot flew 5 ½ hours on a practice
bombing mission in "AUTO-RICH" at a high
power setting. Airplane crashed and 5 men lost
their lives.
2. Failure to Reduce Manifold Pressure at
High Altitude. This can result in an overspeeding turbo wheel disintegrating. One of the
buckets coming your way is just like a .50-cal.
bullet.
3. Failure to Turn Booster Pumps On at High
Altitudes.
4. Increasing Power Without Changing Propeller Setting.
5. Increasing Manifold Pressure Before RPM
Instead of After.
6. Failure to Use Auto-Rich in Power Settings Above Normal Cruise.
7. Stiff-Arming Throttles.
8. Failure to Observe Engine Instruments
and to Control Excessive Temperatm·es.
9. Failure to Know the Fuel System for Particular Airplane You Are Flying.
10. Waiting Too Long to Transfer Fuel.
11. Taking Off in Auto-Lean.
12. Failure to Turn On Booster Pumps for
Takeoff, Causing Collapse of Fuel Lines or
Vapor Lock.
13. Failure to Observe Carburetor and Free
Air Temperature Under Icing Conditions.
120
14. Waiting Until Too Late to Correct for
Carburetor Ice.
15. Improper Use of lntercooler Shutters Resulting in Excessive Carburetor Heat and Detonation. Example: One pilot, at high altitude,
thought he had an icing condition but failed to
observe normal carburetor air temperature. He
closed the intercooler shutters, producing high
carburetor air and cylinder-head temperatures,
followed by the failure of 3 engines. Never let
carburetor air temperature get above 35°C,
especially when using Grade 91 fuel.
16. Failure to Have Fuel Valve Selectors on
Tank-to-Engine for Take-off and Climb. One
pilot took off with all fuel valves on crossfeed
with bomb bay transfer pump on, using gas
from bomb bay tanks only. After takeoff, copilot turned off the bomb bay transfer pump
switch, which is located on his instrument
panel, thinking it was a booster pump. Immediately 4 engines failed and the ship crashed.
17. Improper Procedure With Overspeeding
Turbo on Takeoff. Example: Pilot took off and
experienced an overspeeding turbo, running
manifold pressure beyond gage limits. He failed
to reduce power and bring the turbo under control. The engine blew 5 cylinders and froze in
high rpm. He managed to land, but unnecessarily destroyed an engine.
18. Immediate Feathering of a Runaway Propeller When the Propeller Could Have Been
Brought Under Control With Proper Procedure. Example: Pilot, during takeoff with a
combat load, experienced a runaway propeller.
Without trying to bring the propeller under
control he feathered immediately . He was unable to maintain altitude and the ship crashed
shortly after takeoff. Proper procedure would
have given 15 to 50 % power on that engine.
DETONATION
Improper firing may be caused by a hot spot
within the cylinder, an overheated sparkplug,
exhaust valve, carbon deposit, etc. Once this
gets started, it becomes progressively worse.
The timing of the engines becomes uncontrolled
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and roughness, and/ or detonation, results. The
engine becomes overheated and loses power.
Some of the factors over which you have control, and which increase the tendency of the
engine to detonate, are: High manifold pressure
with low engine speed; too lean a mixture; high
inlet temperatures; high cylinder-head. temperatures; and improper low-grade fuel.
Under normal conditions, the fuel charge in
a cylinder burns quite slowly. When detonation
occurs the first part of the charge within the
cylinder burns rapidly. This compresses the unburned part of the charge until the pressure
and temperature within the cylinder rise so
high that the unburned portion of the charge is
ignited spontaneously, or detonated.
The pressure of the unburned charge fluctuates at a high frequency. These fluctuations literally hammer the wall of the cylinder and
cause the familiar knock.
Even mild detonation will cause overheating,
valve, piston, and cylinder-head burning, piston·
scuffing, and piston ring and valve damage.
, Severe detonation will cause engine failure in a
short time. Complete engine failure can occur
because of detonation during the time it takes
you to make a takeoff run. The indications of
detonation are roughness and overheating.
SOME EXAMPLES OF FAULTY OPERATION
Fault
Flight Reaction
Broken Fuel
Line
RPM
Manifold
Pressure
Cyl. Head
Temp.
Oil
Temp.
-
Drop if
Turbo on
Rapid Drop
Drop
Rise
Rise
Drop
to Zero
Rise
Variable
*
Yaw
Broken Oil
Line
Breakage of
Moving Engine
Parts
Possible Violent
Vibration
Violent
Fluctuation
Unpredictable
Unpredictable
Ignition
Trouble
Rough Running Engine
and Intermittent Yaw
Fluctuation
Fluctuation
if Turbo on
Drop
Probable
Drop
Rapid Rise
Overheating
from Closed
lntercoolers
Mixture Too
Rich
Torching Turbo or Black
Smoke
Failure of
Auto-Mixture .
Feature
Rough Running Engine
Overspeeding
Turbo
Fuel
Pressure
Fluctuation
Variable
Rise
Rise
Slight Drop
Rise or
Drop
Rise or
Drop
Rise or
Drop
Rise
Possible
Overspeeding
Violent Rise
Rapid Rise
Rise
Variable
Variable
Possible Vibration
Rapid
Increase
Drop
Carburetor
Ice
Rough Running Engine
Fluctuation
Drop
Restricted
Fuel Flow
Slight Yaw
Drop if
Turbo on
Carburetor
Air Temps.
Zero
Slight Drop
Runaway
Propeller
*Sign -
Oil
Pressure
Drop
Drop
Fluctuation
(Dash) indicates no apparent change.
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121
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.··.· EQUIPMENT
AND SYSTEMS
HYDRAULIC SYSTEM
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
OIL SYSTEM
FUEL SYSTEM
HEATING SYSTEM
ANTI-ICERS, DE-ICERS AND DEFROSTERS
OXYGEN SYSTEM
VENTILATING SYSTEM
AUTOMATIC PILOT, PDI AND FORMATION STICK
GYRO FLUX GATE COMPASS
RADIO EQUIPMENT
Know your airplane! That's the only way you
can qualify yourself to fly it with maximum
effectiveness. W~ich instruments are autosyn?
' Where are the fuse boxes? How do you transfer
fuel in your particular airplane? What is the
layout of the oil system? This is just a start on
the questions every pilot will want to be able
to answer in detail to be prepared to meet emergencies that can jeopardize his airplane and his
crew.
Here's what a B-24 combat pilot says:
"What you know about the airplane will
determine whether you can bring one back that
is badly shot up. If we had it to do all over,
we would dig in twice as hard to know that
airplane from one end to the other. You may
be able to get by the minor things, such as
engine trouble, but when you run into damage
122
to systems from AA and fighter fire, you must
know a lot about the. airplane to fly it home.''
The following sections give brief, basic information about the airplane. Don't be satisfied
with what you learn here. Query your instructor, your engineer, read the P.I.F., dig into technical orders and study the airplane from nose
to tail repeatedly.
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HY.DRAUL Ic.
SYSTEMS
ter system operates the bomb bay doors, wing
flaps and landing gear.
2. In the accumulator· system fluid is under
constant high pressure built up in two accumulators. This system is the sole source of pressure
for operation of brakes, nose turret, Sperry
The principle of hydraulic power is the actuating of a piston within a cylinder, usually
double acting. Pressure may be applied to
either side. of the piston for power in either
direction, by means of hydraulic pressure supplied by a power pump. Oils and liquids are not
compressible; therefore, the power delivery of
any hydraulic system is directly proportional
to the applied pressure.
Hydraulic Equipment in the B-24
1. The main hydraulic system operates the
tricycle landing gear (including retractable
tailskid), wing flaps, bomb bay doors, power
brake, Sperry automatic pilot (when supplied),
and the nose turret.
2. The hydraulic shock absorber units cushion the landing impact and taxiing loads on the
tricycle landing gear.
3. The hydraulic nosewheel shimmy damper
unit dampens the tendency of the nosewheel to
shimmy from side to side.
4. The hydraulic tail and nose turret units
control the rotation of the turrets, the elevation
of the guns, and the charging mechanisms.
Main Hydraulic System
The hydraulic system consists of a main open
center system and a secondary accumulator
system. It uses hydraulic fluid of specification
AN-VV-0-366a. The capacity of the ~ntire system is approximately 18 U.S. gallons, while the
reservoi.r capacity is 3.8 gallons from bottom
of reservoir to center suction outlet, .plus 3 gallons from center suction outlet to filler neck.
1. In the open center system the fluid circulates freely in a completely closed circuit when
no hydraulic mechanisms other than the engine-driven pump are operating. The open cenRESTRICTED
TAIL TURRET HYDRAULIC SYSTEM
automatic pilot (when provided), and auxiliary
and emergency (hydraulic) control of bomb
bay doors.
Hydraulic Pumps
1. Engine-Driven Hydraulic Pump
The main, or Vickers positive displacement,
pump (19), driven by No. 3 engine, supplies
pressure for the main system. The pump normally floats on the line. When the flow is diverted by closing any selector valve to operate
an hydraulic mechanism, pressure builds up to
an amount required to operate the mechanism.
The pump's secondary function is to maintain pressure in the accumulator system. An
automatic unloading valve (9) in the engine123
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124
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MASTER KEY . LIST OF HYDRAULIC UNITS
FOR HYDRAULIC SYSTEM DIAGRAMS
•
J;
Bomb Bay Door Selector Valve
Brake Pressure Gages
(L & R) Brake Control Valves
Landing Gear Selector Valve
Flap Selector Valve
Nosewheel Actuating Cylinder
7. Nose Turret Shut-Off Valve
8. Nosewheel Restrictor
9. Unloading Valve
10. Hand Pump
11. Hydraulic System Pressure Gage
12. (L & R) Accumulators
13. Hand Pump System. Valve
13A Hand Pump Flap Valve
14. Nose Turret Check Valve
15. Auxiliary Electric Pump
16. Relief Valve
17. Bomb Door Emergency and Utility
Control Valve
18. Main Landing Gear Restrictor
19. Engine Driven Pump
20. Pressure Switch
21. (L & R) Main Landing Gear Actuating
Cylinder
22. Relief Valve
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
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23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
41 A
42.
43.
Shuttle Valve
Flap Actuating Cylinder
Suction Line Check Valve
Auxiliary Star Valve
Fluid Reservoir
Filter
(L & R) Bomb Bay Doors Actuating
Cylinder
Bomb Door Cylinder Relief Valve
Auxiliary System Relief Valve
(L & R) Brake Bleeder Valve
Test Stand Connections
Check Valve
•
Check Valve
Left Accumulator Check Valve
(Spring Removed)
Right Accumulator Check Valve
Auxiliary Pump Check Valve
Tail Bumper Shut-Off Valves
Tail Bumper Actuating Cylinder
Automatic Seal Coupling
Automatic Seal Coupling
Emergency Suction Valve
Brake Disconnect Coupling
125
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driven pump pressure line regulates this operation. When the accumulators are charging, all
the fluid flow in the open center line is diverted
by the unloading valve to the accumulators.
2. Auxiliary Hydraulic Pump
An electrically driven gear-type pump (15),
located on the right side of the fuselage in the
forward bomb bay, maintains accumulator
pressure when the engine driven pump is not
operating. An automatic pressure switch (20)
and a manual master switch control the pump
motor.
When the engine-driven pump fails, an emergency hydraulic (star) valve (26) just above
and forward of -the auxiliary hydraulic pump
may be turned on to connect the pump into the
main system.
The auxiliary hydraulic pump receives power
from the right hand power bus-normal load 95
to 98 amperes-and has 2 functions:
a. Accumulator charging function-The auxiliary hydraulic pump is turned on before taxiing and off before takeoff, and turned on again
just before landing. When turned on ( emergency hydraulic star valve (26) closed) this
pump maintains the pressure in both accumulators (12L) and (12R) between the limits 975
lb. sq. in. and 1180 lb. sq. in. while the engine
pump supplies fluid only to the open center
system selector valves. This is made possible
by the relative pressure adjustments of unloading valve (9) and pressure switch (20).
b. Emergency function-In the event of failure of engine-driven pump (19) or engine No. 3
to which it is attached, the auxiliary hydraulic
pump is turned on and interconnected to the
126
open center pressure line by opening emergency hydraulic (star) valve (26). Then the
auxiliary hydraulic pump performs exactly the
functions of the engine driven pump.
3. Hydraulic Hand Pump
The hydraulic hand pump (10) is located
outboard of the copilot's seat. This pump delivers pres~ure to the llne and can be used for
operation of the entire hydraulic system by
pumping fluid into the open center line through
forward valve (13) on hand pump; or it can be
used independently for lowering of the wing
flaps by pumping fluid through aft valve (13A)
to the flap cylinder.
Fluid for the hand pump (10), which is not
part of the open center system, is drawn from
the bottom of the reservoir through a separate
line. The hand pump is used only for emergency operation.
Reserve Fluid-In the event of low fluid level
in the reservoir (27) the engine-driven pump
and the electrically driven pump may be connected to the bottom of the reservoir by closing
the suction valve ( 42) provided in the reservoir
outlet. This should be done only after steps
have bee~ taken to insure that no further loss
of fluid can take place, or the reserve supply
will be wasted through the same outlet.
Caution: The landing gear, bomb bay doors,
and flaps retracting mechanisms cannot be
operated simultaneously.
~YDRAULIC
PRESSURE
(
Operating Pressures
The main system pressure gage on the instrument panel should indicate approximately 50 lb.
with no controls operating. ·With any system
being used, this pressure should rise to between
100 and 1100 lb.
The wing flaps should be operated before
flight to allow the pilot to check the system and
the operating pressures ·built up at the gage.
The brake pressure gage should always show a
pressure of approximately 850 to 1180 lb. sq. in.
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PRESSURE SEfflNGS
Engine pump relief valve
1250 lb. sq. in.
Auxiliary electric pump relief valve
1250 lb. sq. in.
Bomb doors open relief valve
.
.
.
750 lb. sq. in.
.
500 lb. sq. in.
Wing flaps down relief valve
Auxiliary pump pressure switch
. 975-1180 lb. sq. in.
Accumulator unloading valve
. 850-1050 lb. sq. in.
SELECTOR VAL VE RELIEF
Landing gear
Up
1100 lb. sq. in.
Down
850 lb. sq. in.
Wing flaps
Up
750 lb. sq. in.
Down
450 lb. sq. in.
Bomb bay doors
Open 600 lb. sq. in.
LANDING GEAR AND TAIL BUMPER
HYDRAULIC CONTROL
The landing gear (2 main wheels, nosewheel)
and the tail bumper gear are operated simultaneously under hydraulic control. The main
control ( 4) for extending arid retracting the
gear is located on the left side of the pilot's pedestal. Movement of the operating lever is restrained by an electric solenoid, which is controlled by 2 switches in series. The operating
switch is a push button in the operating handle
itself; the other, a safety switch, is located on
the left landing gear fairing. Extension of the
landing gear strut on takeoff closes the safety
switch and allows the circuit to be completed
by pressing the operating switch button on the
valve operating lever. The locking solenoid is
located back of the instrument panel, and restrains the lever from "UP" position only.
Movement of selector valve (4) to the "UP"
position applies hydraulic pressure simultaneously to the side gear restrictor (18) and to the
nosewheel actuating cylinder (6). The side gear
restrictor restricts the flow of fluid to the main
landing gear until the pressure reaches 800 lb.
sq. in. This pressure is sufficient to house the
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Close 1000 lb. sq. in.
nose gear. When pressure exceeds 800 lb. sq. in.
the restrictor opens and allows fluid to go to the
side gear cylinders.
On the lowering operation, pressure is applied to all 3 gear cylinders simultaneously. In
case of insufficient pressure in the hydraulic
system, th~ hand pump may be used.
In case of complete failure of the hydraulic
system, the tricycle landing gear may be lowered manually. No means of manual control is
provided for the tail bumper.
Main landing Gear
Each main landing gear mechanism, operated
by the main retracting cylinders through overrides, is equipped with 2 latches.
Down-Latch on Drag Strut Knuckle
When the main gear is fully extended, a
spring-loaded latch on the side brace knee holds
the side brace rigid and locks the gear in place.
127
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than 30°. A hydraulic shimmy damper tends to
restrain any oscillation of the gear about its
vertical axis. An internal centering cam in the
oleo returns the wheel to its straight-ahead
position when the oleo is fully ~xtended. A
single latch on the drag link, actuated by the
hydraulic jack over-ride, locks the nosewheel
gear in both the retracted and extende·d positions.
Tailskid and Tail Bumper Gear
Another latch, on the side brace pivot in the
wing, locks the gear in the retracted position.
The main gear down-latch is painted yellow
and can be seen for down-latch check from the
side window. It cannot be seeri if flaps are lowered.
A retractable tailskid and bumper is installed
on aircraft beginning with Serial No. 41-23640.
It may be used within certain limits on tail-low
landings. Do not land skid first.
The tail bumper protects the bottom of the
fuselage in case the airplane should accidentally
tilt back.
Nosewheel Gear
Warning Signal Light
The nosewheel retracts into the nose of the
fuselage under the pilot's floor. The nosewheel
doors are mechanically connected to the gear
mechanism so that they open automatically before the gear is extended and close after the
gear is retracted.
The nosewheel is designed to turn 45 ° either
side of the center line for free ground maneu.;.
verability but should never be turned more
A green light on pilot's instrument panel is
lighted whenever the landing gear is down and
locked.
Further warning that the gear has not been
extended is given by an electric horn ( on some
aircraft) connected to the throttle controls.
When the throttles are moved backward to approximately ¾ closed, and all landing wheels
are not extended·and locked, the horn will blow
Nosewheel
Landing Gear
Assembly
128
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until the gear has been extended and locked or
until the throttles are opened to higher engine
speed. The horn may be silenced by pressing
the pilot's interruption switch on the pilot's
pedestal. The horn will then remain silent until
the throttles are moved again. This re-sets the
horn relay so that another closing of the throttles would again actuate the horn. The horn
interruption switch is provided in the event it
is necessary to continue flight with one or more
engines throttled.
The green light is wired through switches on
all 3 landing gear units. On aircraft equipped
with bottom turrets, this warning is also given
when the turret has not been fully retracted
and when the guns have not been completely
housed.
Note: On recent aircraft, there is a push-totest button for the warning light. This button
tests only the operation of the light itself; it is
not a check on whether the gear is down and
locked. The green light should go on when you
push the button, even if the gear is up. If it
doesn't go on, the bulb may be burned out. If
you lower the gear and the light does not indicate down and locked, don't assume that the
gear is down and locked if the light goes on
when you push the test button.
WING FLAP HYDRAULIC CONTROL
General
The Fowler-type wing flaps are operated by a
single hydraulic jack (24) which lies along the
left rear wing spar at Wing Station 3.0. The
flaps move along tracks in the trailing edge and
are extended and retracted by a lever on the
right side of the pilot's pedestal. To raise flaps,
move lever forward; to lower flaps, pull lever
aft.
'
FLAPS
UP
With full flaps extended, speeds in excess of
155 mph will create a sufficient pressure on the
flaps to open a relief valve (22) at the operating
cylinder and allow the flaps to retract automatically.
Caution: This relief valve is a safety precaution only. Do not test durmg flight as the excessive pressures required for this operation
might damage the mechanism.
In case of partial failure of the main hydraulic system, the hand pump (10) outboard of the
copilot's seat may be used through an independent direct line to the flap cylinder to extend only.
In case of complete failure of the hydraulic
system, no manually controlled system is provided for the wing flaps.
BOMB BAY DOORS HYDRAULIC CONTROL
Two individual hydraulic iacks, one on each side of the fuselage, operate the bomb bay doors.
The operation of the bomb bay doors is controlled from any one of 4 positions:
1.
2.
ing
3.
side
4.
Bombardier's compartment
Under radio operator's floor at hatch open-
Main control valve
Auxiliary control valve
On the ground from access door on right
forward of bomb bay door
Pilot's compartment
Auxiliary control valve
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Emergency operation of auxiliary valve. Doors
may be opened but not closed until pull line
is re-set
129
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NOSEWHEEL HYDRAULIC SHIMMY
DAMPER
CAUTION: The pilot's emergency pull line to
the auxiliary valve cam (see No. 4 control)
must be re-set by hand or hydraulic system
will bypass through the bomb jack relief valve,
thus affecting the entire hydraulic system.
Under military operating conditions the main
control valve is used to control the operation of
the doors.
The auxiliary valve, in the accumulator system, is generally used for local flight operations.
In case of complete failure of the hydraulic
system, the doors may be operated manually by
hand cranks accessible from the catwalk at the
center of the bomb bay.
Bomb Bay Door Position Indicators
When these doors are fully open the following
lights are illuminated:
1. A red light on the bombardier's panel.
2. An amber light on the pilot's panel.
3. A white light on the tail to notify other
airplanes in the formation.
In landing or takeoff the nosewheel has a tendency to shimmy. A shimmy damper installed
on the oleo strut dampens out this vibration
without restricting any of the normal functions
of the nosewheel. Two types of shimmy dampers are installed on B-24 aircraft. One type
utilizes 2 hydraulic cylinders which act in opposite directions and are connected to an accumulator. Vibration is absorbed by the combined action of fluid passing through a restricted orifice and by the compressed air in
the accumulator.
Accumulator Type Damper
The other type of shimmy damper is a single
self-contained un~t which dampe~s vibration by
causing hydraulic fluid to flow through restricted orifices.
POWER BRAKE HYDRAULIC CONTROL
Two completely separate units operate the hydraulic brakes. Each unit contains 2 brake cylinders which control one of the dual Hayes expanding-bladder-type brakes on each main
landing wheel. One cylinder of each unit is
mechanically interconnected to the right brake
pedal of both pilot and copilot; the other cylinder of each unit is similarly connected to
both left brake pedals.
Each unit takes its pressure directly from a
different one of the 2 main accumulators which
are isolated from each other by check valves so
that failure of one accumulator does not affect
the other. Failure of one complete unit leaves
½ braking power available.
130
Houdaille Type Damper
In case of failure of the early accumulator
type of shimmy damper, provision was made
for locking it in a straight-travel, non-steerable
position. This procedure was covered by an
instruction chart at Station 1.2 on the right of
the fuselage. No locking procedure is provided
for the later type of Houdaille shimmy damper.
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ELECTRICAL
SYSTEM
4. Alternating current 3-volt system for compass lighting, on some airplanes.
5. Miscellaneous systems for the gun turrets,
automatic flight controls and radio.
Fuse Boxes and Circuits
Power Supply
1. When the engines are operating, power is
generated by four 24-volt, 200-ampere, type
P-1 generators, one on each engine. The voltage of each generator may be adjusted at the
voltage regulator under the flight deck on each
side of the centerline.
2. Main battery power ~s supplied by two 24volt, 34-ampere-hour batteries connected in
parallel.
3. Auxiliary power is supplied by a type C-10
auxiliary generator, with a capacity of 2.0 kilowatts and powered by an independent gasoline
engine (Homelite unit) . This auxiliary generator must be run for starting engines, or in the
case of main generator failure in flight. The
auxiliary power unit is not supercharged and
power generation from the auxiliary unit,
therefore, ceases at high altitudes.
4. For ground operation a provision is made
for an external (battery cart) connection. Always use battery cart for first .starts, where
available, or have auxiliary power unit in operation. The excessive loads incident to initial
start will shorten the life of the main batteries.
Note: The battery switches must be left off
when using battery cart.
From the various fuse boxes to which the above
power is delivered, the following 16 DC and
AC primary circuits distribute power to the
mechanisms those circuits operate:
Heating and ventilating controls
Bomb release and signals
Propeller controls
Ice elimination controls, fuel and hydraulic
pumps
Exterior lights
Instruments
Ignition
High tension
Automatic flight controls and turrets
Interior and recognitio11. lights
Landing gear signals and flap position indicator
Power
Radio and communication
Engine starter
Engine controls
Misc. (camera, alarm bell, etc.)
Lights
Location and purpose of interior lights is given
in the section on night flying.
Electrical Systems
1. Direct current, 24-volt, single-wire system.
Most of the electric equipment in the airplane,
including late design of fluorescent lighting, is
supplied through this system.
2. Alternating current 26-volt system for the
autosyn indicator system.
3. Alternating current 115-volt system for
the fluorescent lighting on some airplanes and
• the radio compass. Two independent inverters .
controlled by a selector switch on the pilot's
pedestal permit use of either unit.
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Panels and Switchboards
Generator control panel is on forward face of
bulkhead at Station 4.1, left side of flight deck,
131°
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C
LEGEND
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
11 .
12.
13.
J
Reverse Current Relay (4 req .)
Ammeter Shunt (4 req.)
Generator Resistor (4 req .)
Current Limiter far Gun Turrets (250 Ampere)
Current Limiter far Wing Power Cable
(400Ampere)
Current limiter for Outside Battery Circuit
(400 Ampere)
Current limiter far Gun Turrets (250 Ampere)
Current Limiter for Auxiliary Electric Hydraulic
Pump (250 Ampere)
Power Bus, Wing, Right Hand
Outside Battery Solenoid Switch
Current Limiter for Gun Turrets (250 Ampere)
Power Bus, Wing, Left Hand
Current Limiter for Wing Power Cable
(400 Ampere)
Tail Turret Fuse Box
Current Limiter for Bottom Turret (250 Ampere)
Station 6.1 Fuse Box
Station 5.-4 Fuse Box
.
Landing light Filament Fuse (2 req.)
Current limiter for Generators (250 Ampere, 4 req.)
Current limiter for Starter ond Propeller Fast
Feathering Motor (250 Ampere, 4 req. )
Generator, Type P-1 (4 req.)
Battery, Solenoid Switches (2 req.)
Switch, Auxiliary Power Unit
Auxiliary Power Unit
Master Battery Ground Switch
Batteries, Type G-1 (2 req .)
Current Limiters for Batteries (250 Ampere, 2 req.)
Main Power Bus
Station 3. 1 Fuse Bax
Pilot's Fuse Bax
Nose Turret Fuse Box
Bomb Panel
Station 4 .0 Fuse Box
Outside Battery Receptacle
Heater Fuse Box {lo 42-7351-4)
Battery oncj__lgnition Master Switch
Battery Switches
Battery and Ignition Switch Bax
Capilot', Fuse Box
Switch, Top Turret Power
SOURCES AND DISIRIBUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY
�RESTRICTED
and carries 4 field switches to cut generators in
or out of main system. One voltmeter with
multi-point selector switch indicates voltage
output of each generator or main bus, and the
4 ammeters, one for each generator, indicate
current flow.
Voltage regulators, 2 on each side forward of
bulkhead at Station 4.0 under flight deck, provide generator voltage adjustment for balance
of load.
Five main electric switch panels control the
distribution of power to the 16 primary circuits.
One of these is at the left of the bombardier; the
other 4 are in the pilot's compartment.
Spare Current Limiters, Fuses and Lamps
The fusible links for the 4 main generators are
not accessible in flight; neither are the landing
light filament circuit fuses nor the nacelle
power circuit limiters in the nacelle junction
boxes.
Fuses and interior limiters are replaceable in
flight and are located as follows:
1. Spare fusible links are located in the limiter boxes which are located as follows: 2 on
lett accumulator bracket; 4 on the left and 6 on
the right rear face of the bulkhead at Station
4.1. All limiters require a ½-inch wrench to re. move and install.
2. Spare fuses are provided in each fuse box.
3. A spare bulb for the landing gear downposition indicator is clipped to the instrument
panel.
4. A sp~re bulb assortment is located aft of
bulkhead at Station 4.0 on the left side. No
spare bulbs for exterior lights are carried.
Note: Fuse boxes in general are located nec',lr
places where fuses are used. Open these boxes
and study the chart to see what fuses are provided and where they are used. This will save a
hurried hunt in emergencies.
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OIL SYSTEM
Each engine nacelle contains its independent oil
system, consisting of a hopper-type self-sealing
tank 32.9 U.S. (27.3 Imperial) gallons, temperature regulator, engine pump, and propeller
feathering pump.
Engine oil systems provide oil for lubrication
of the turbo-supercharger impellers and for
operation of the propeller feathering system.
The supercharger waste gate regulator, Eclipse
type A-13, which is installed on early B-24G,
H, and J aircraft, is also actuated by engine
oil pressure.
The oil dilution valve for each engine is controlled by a switch located on the copilot's
switch panel. Engine oil may be heated by externally powered neck-type immersion heaters.
An oil temperature indicator located on the
copilot's instrument panel indicates the oil temperature as determined by a resistance bulb in
the Y drain valves.
An oil pressure indicator located on the copilot's instrument panel measures the oil .pressure at a restricted fitting in the rear crank case
section as determined by an autosyn transmitter.
Oil Dilution
Oil dilution is necessary when ground temperatures reach 4°C or lower, in order to keep
the oil from congealing so much that starting
will be difficult.
133
�-
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Autosyn Elec. Unit
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Pressure Gauge
/
rs]
Temperature
Gauge
Accelerating Wei I
Turbo(hopper)
■
supercharger ••••••••••• • • • • • • • • • • •~
Regula tor. :
·
.
■
■
)~)
,- ,
.
.
•
• ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ .~
.
I
■
■
-··············
~ - - - - - - - -•--
■
••
•
To Oil Separator
Unit
Viscosity
Valve
;a
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~
LEGEND
Line from Tank
Return to Tonk
Pressure
Oil Temperature
Unit
••••
TURBO REGULATOR OIL LINE OMITTED WHEN ELECTRONIC CONTROL IS USED.
;a
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DIAGRAM OF OIL SYSTEM
To Feathering Pump
�RESTRICTED
OIL DILUTION PROCEDURE
CAUTION:
1. Operate engines at 800 to 1000 rpm.
2. Dilute all engines simultaneously with gang bar if indicated oil pressures
do not exceed a 10-lb. variation. If this tolerance is exceeded, dilute each
engine separately.
3. Maintain oil temperature below 40°C (104°F).
4. Before diluting all engines simultaneously, establish the average indicated
pressure. If engines are diluted individually, oil pressure of each must be
noted before dilution.
5. Dilute engine oil as follows, for ground temperature as shown:
+4° to -26°C (+40° to -15°F) depress dilutio.n switch until a 35%
oil pressure reduction is accomplished.
-26° to -40°C (-15° to -40°F) depress dilution switch until a 50%
pressure reduction is accomplished.
6. It is important to leave dilution switches engaged until propellers cease
rotating, so undiluted oil will not be drawn into the engine.
7. Under extremely low temperatures, locally recommended procedure should
be followed.
8. On airplanes having oil-operated turbo regulators, operate turbo controls
over complete range from low to high blower and return at the minimum rate
of 8 seconds per cycle (at least 14 complete movements from low to high
blower and return) during the last 2 minutes of the dilution period.
9. During the last 2 minutes of the dilution period depress propeller feathering
switch until drop of 400 rpm is observed. Pull out feathering switch and allow
rpm to return to normal. Repeat this operation 3 times.
NOTE: Overdilution causes sludge and carbon to be loosened in the engine,
causing oil screens to collapse and oil lines to clog. This constitutes a fire hazard,
and may cause er:-gine failure as well.
FUEL SYSTEM
The following fuel capacity is provided in the
B-24.
Main system-4 sets of 3 cells each; total 12
cells; total capacity 2344 U. S. gallons:
No. 1 tank-616 U. S. Gallons
No. 2 tank-556 U.S. Gallons
No. 3 tank-556 U. S. Gallons
No. 4 tank-616 U. S. Gallons
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Auxiliary wing system-2 sets of 3 cells each;
total 6 cells; total capacity 450 U. S. Gallons:
Left-hand tank-225 U. S. Gallons
Right-hand tank-225 U. S. Gallons
Auxiliary bomb bay system-2 separate cells
with a total capacity of 782 U. S. gallons:
Left-hand tank-391 {J. S. Gallons
Right-hand tank-391 U. S. Gallons
Fuel System Indicators
Pressure-Gages measuring fuel pressure at the
carburetors are mounted on the copilot's instrument panel.
Quantity-Sight gages, mounted on the forward face of bulkhead at Station 4.1, left side,
135
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show the quantity of fuel in each of the main
systems. In case of damage to the gage vent or
supply lines, shut-off valves are provided on top
of the gages and at the supply takeoff under the
center section, to prevent the loss of fuel.
No fuel quantity gages are provided in either
auxiliary system. A glass tube between the
wing auxiliary selector valve and the transfer
pump shows flow of fuel being trans£erred.
Note: Inclinometer on outboard side of fuel
gages must read neutral when gages are read.
Warning: Aromatic Fuel-Do not use aromatic
fuel in the system unless all units carry the
markings which designate them as suitable for
aromatic fuel.
Aromatic-resistant, self-sealing fuel hose can
be identified by a single red stripe and correct
part number in red. Part number and name of
manufacturer are stamped every 12 inches:
AR-145, or G-145 Goodyear; AR-184 Goodrich
or Boston Woven Hose; AR-250 U.S. Rubber.
Aromatic-resistant fuel hose, not self-sealing,
can be identified by a white stripe and a broken
red line. This hose is used only for connection
of aluminum alloy tubing to fuel system lines
( engine-driven fuel pump to carburetor line
and fuel cell vent system lines.)
All other parts of the systems are marked
with an A if suitable for aromatic fuels. Units
made of aluminum alloy carry an A painted in
red or stamped on the aluminum body.
Fuel System
136
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...
Main Fuel System
Fuel Transfer From One Main System to Another
1. Twelve self-sealing fuel cells in the wing
center section. There are 4 sets of 3 cells each.
In normal operation each engine is served by
one set.
2. Four electrically-driven booster pumps
with strainers ( one for each set of cells). They
are usually located in the bomb bay just under
the cells.
3. Four ·triple-port shut-off valves. On each
valve: One port leads to an engine; one port
leads to a set of cells; and one port interconnects to the other 3 valves by way of the cross£eed connection which allows fuel from any set
of cells to serve any engine in an emergency,
and permits equalizing flow between systems.
These valves are under the front spar in the
bomb bay.
4. Four engine-driven pumps with strainers
are located one in each nacelle.
5. Four electrically controlled primers are ·
located one on each carburetor.
,
6. Two vent systems for the main fuel systems. One of these vents the fuel system serving
Engines 1 and 2; namely, the left bank of main
fuel cells; the left fuel gauge; and the carburetors on the left wing. In the same manner the
other vent system vents the fuel system serving
Engines 3 and 4 on the right wing.
· 7. Two vent systems for the wing auxiliary
fuel system. One of these vents the 3 cells in
the left wing; similarly, the other vents the 3
auxiliary cells in the right wing.
8. One electrically driven transfer pump
above the center wing section allows transfer
of fuel to a main system through the trans£ er
panel.
9. Drain lines for the wing fuel cell compartments and for the 4 fuel booster pumps empty
overboard under the bulkhead at Station 5.0.
The 2 shut-off valves are normally open, but
must be closed during combat.
10. Main fuel system supply lines and cell
interconnecting, or manifold, lines are selfsealing.
Procedure for trans£ erring fuel from one main
system to another is vital information. Illustrations give examples of fuel transfer methods
which are typical of the 3 different arrangements in the main systems. Airplane serial
numbers, recorded on the nameplate on the left
of the pilots' pedestal, are an index to the
selection of the proper illustration of fuel
transfer.
RESTRICTED
Wing Auxiliary Fuel System
1. Six self-sealing fuel cells, 3 in each wing,
are located outboard of the wheel wells.
2. Transfer of fuel from the wing auxiliary
systems is controlled at 2 panels located above
the wing center section. The aft e,r auxiliary
selector valve panel contains one 2-way selector shut-off ~alve and strainer. This valve selects the auxiliary system, left or right, from
which fuel is to be transferred. In later installations the forward or auxiliary transfer panel
contains two 2-way selector shut-off valves, the
transfer pump, and switch. These valves select
the main system, 1, 2, 3, or 4, or any combination
thereof, into which fuel is to be transferred.
3. Two venting systems, one for each auxiliary set of 3 cells, right and left.
4. Auxiliary wing cell fuel supply lines are
self-sealing.
Fuel Transfer-Wing Auxiliary System to Main
System
Illustrations give examples of fuel transfer
methods which are typical of the 2 different
arrangements to be found in wing auxiliary
systems.
The rate of fuel transfer in this system is
approximately 5 U.S. gallons per minute, or
300 gallons per hour. In case of emergency,
,should the pump fail, fuel transfer from either
auxiliary set of wing cells to the main system
can be effected by lowering the opposite wing
from 3° to 5°. The rate of fuel flow under this
condition is approximately 3 gallons per minute,
or 180 gallons per hour.
137
�RESTRICTED
Bomb Bay Auxiliary Fuel System
Bomb Bay
Fuel Cell
1. Two self-sealing fuel cells are provided,
one on each side of the catwalk in the forward
bomb bay.
2. In later installations a 2-way selector valve
and transfer pump are mounted on the catwalk
at Station 5.0, and anqther 2-way shutoff drain
valve is connected to a T fitting in the crossfeed line.
Fuel Transfer-Bomb Bay Auxiliary System to
Main System
Control
Valve &
Tron!lfer
Pump----
Bomb Bay Auxiliary Fuel System
PRECAUTIONS
WHEN TRANSFERRING FUEL
1. Know the system for transferring fuel in
the particular airplane you are· flying.
2. Start transfer as soon as fuel in main tank
is consumed to a point where transfer can be
accomplished. This assures you sufficient fuel
to return to your base in case of failure of
transfer system, improves loading, and reduces
fire hazards.
3. Radio equipment and auxiliary hydraulic
pumps off during transfer.
4. Warn crew that fuel will be transferredno smoking.
5. At the end of 10 minutes, turn the transfer pump off, shut off all transfer valves, and
determine that fuel is being properly transferred before continuing.
138
Illustrations on the following pages give examples of fuel transfer methods which are typical
of the 3 different arrangements to be found in
bomb bay auxiliary systems.
The rate of fuel transfer in this system is
approximately 10 U.S. gallons per minute, or
600 gallons per hour.
6. If transferring fuel from bomb bay tanks:
a. Remove bomb bay tank cap for inspection.
Return cap to proper place before resuming
transfer operation.
b. One crew member should be on watch in
bomb bay at all times when transfer is in
progress. At any indication of overflow, bomb
bay transfer pump should be stopped and thorough inspection conducted.
7. Bomb bay doors should be open slightly
( 6 to 8 inches) before and during transfer.
8. Don't attempt to fill more than one main
tank at a time as all engines connected to the
crossfeed manifold will stop running when the
bomb bay tanks are empty and air is introduced
into crossfeed manifold.
9. Do not turn on fuel pump switch until
selector valves are set; do not change setting of
selector valves while fuel pump is on.
10. Do not leave selector valves "ON" or
"BOTH ON" after transfer is completed.
RESTRICTED
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FILLING ONE MAIN SYSTEM FROM ANOTHER USING U HOSES WHILE FEEDING FOUR ENGINES ON
B-24 AIRPLANES, THROUGH No. 41-11938
EXAMPLE: FUEL TRANSFER FROM No. 4 MAIN SYSTEM TO No. 2 MAIN SYSTEM
MAIN TRANSFER PANEL
GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS
When system being tilled is within 50
gallons of full, turn main transfer
pump Off and disconnect U hoses.
Turn pump ON after
U hoses are connected
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FILLING ONE MAIN SYSTEM FROM ANOTHER WHILE FEEDING FOUR ENGINES ON B-24 AIRPLANES
FROM No. 41-23640 TO 42-40917
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EXAMPLE: FUEL TRANSFER FROM No. 1 MAIN SYSTEM TO No. 4 MAIN SYSTEM
GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS
To speed transfer use booster pumps and cross-feed line in
conjunction with U hoses.
When system being filled is within 50 gallons of full, turn
main transfer pump OFF and disconnect hoses. Reset selector valves of system being fUled and system being drained
to TANK TO ENGINE.
When any main system is emptied set its selector valve lo
CROSS FEED TO ENGINE and set the selector valves of
the three remaining systems to TANK TO ENGINE AND
CROSS FEED.
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CAUTION: Do not
fill more than one
system al a lime and
have radio OFF.
Turn main transfer pump ON
after selector valves are set and
hoses are connected.
To No. 1
Eng.
To No. 4
Eng.
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When fuel is low in all systems and it is desired to level tanks, set selector valves of all main systems to TANK TO ENGINE AND
CROSSFEED, with booster pumps OFF. As soon as tanks are leveled, turn selectors back to TANK TO ENGINE.
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FILLING ONE MAIN SYSTEM FROM ANOTHER USING CROSS FEED WHILE FEEDING FOUR ENGINES
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ON B-24 AIRPLANES, ON AND AFTER No. 42-40918
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EXAMPLE: FUEL TRANSFER FROM No. 1 MAIN SYSTEM TO No. 3 MAIN SYSTEM
CD
•
dooster
OFF
To
No. 4
Eng.
Booster
ON
To
No.2
Eng.
c)
Tank
To
Eng.
To
"No. 1
Eng.
c)
Tank To
Eng. and
Cross Feed
GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS
When system being filled is within 50 gallons of full, reset selector valves of system being filled and
system being drained to TANK TO ENGINE.
When any main system is emptied set its selector valve to CROSS FEED TO ENGINE and set the selector
valves of three remaining systems to TANK TO ENGINE AND CROSS FEED.
When fuel is low in all systems and it is desired to level tanks, set selector valves of all main systems to
TANK TO ENGINE AND CROSSFEED, with booster pumps OFF. As soon as tanks are leveled, turn selectors
back to TANK TO ENGINE.
CAUTION: Do not fill more than one system at a time and have radio Off.
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FILLING ONE MAIN SYSTEM FROM THE AUXILIARY WING SYSTEMS USING U CONNECTORS WHILE
FEEDING FOUR ENGINES ON B-24 AIRPLANES, FROM No. 41-23640 TO No. 42-40917
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L. H. Aux. System
GENERAL
INSTRUCTIONS
When system being
filled is within-SO gal1on s of full, turn
main transfer pump
Off and disconnect
U hoses.
Turn auxiliary selector valve to BOTH
Off.
Auxiliary
Selector Valve
Panel
Turn pump ON
after U hoses are
connected and
valve is set.
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EXAMPLE: FUEL TRANSFER FROM L. H. AUXILIARY
WING SYSTEM TO No. 3 MAIN SYSTEM
. R. H. Aux. System
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�FILLING THE MAIN SYSTEMS FROM THE AUXILIARY WING SYSTEMS WHILE FEEDING FOUR ENGINES ON
B-24 AIRPLANES, ON AND AFTER No. 42-40918
EXAMPLE: FUEL TRANSFER FROM BOTH AUXILIARY
WING SYSTEMS TO No. 3 AND No. 4 MAIN SYSTEMS
R. H. Aux. System
L. H. Aux. System
Turn auxil·
iary pump
I
ON
ON after
(!)
OFF
valves are set.
GENERAL
INSTRUCTIONS
When system being Riled
• is within 50 gallons of
full, turn auxiliary
pump OFF.
Turn auxiliary selector
valve and auxiliary
transfer panel valves
OFF.
DO NOT CHANGE
VALVE S,.E TT ING S
WHILE PUMP IS ON.
Auxiliary
Selector
Valve Panel
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FILLING ONE MAIN SYSTEM FROM THE BOMB BAY FUEL CELLS USING U HOSES WHILE FEEDING FOUR
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ENGINES ON B-24 AIRPLANES, FROM No. 41-11587 TO No. 41-24175
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EXAMPLE: FUEL TRANSFER FROM BOTH BOMB BAY FUEL CELLS TO No. 2 MAIN SYSTEM
GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS
When system being filled is within 50 gallons of full, turn both
main transfer and bomb bay pump OFF and disconnect hoses.
Turn bomb bay selector valve to BOTH OFF.
CAUTION: Caps on the bomb bay fuel cells should not be removed during transfer operations. One crew member should
be on guard in the
bomb bay at all times
during transfer. At
Turn main transfer pump and bomb bay
any indication of fuel
booster pump ON after bomb bay selector
overflow stop bomb
valve is set and hoses are connected.
bay booster pump and
investigate.
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Bomb Bay
Booster
Pump ON
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�FILLING ONE MAIN SYSTEM FROM A BOMB BAY FUEL CELL WHILE FEEDING FOUR ENGINES ON
B-24 AIRPLANES, ON AND AFTER No. 42-40918
EXAMPLE: FUEL TRANSFER FROM L. H. BOMB BAY FUEL CELL TO NO. 4 MAIN SYSTEM
To No. 1
Eng.
To No. 4
Eng.
Tank
To
Eng. al'.'ld
Cross Feed
GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS
When system being fllled is within 50 gals. of
full, turn bomb bay booster pump OFF.
Turn bomb bay shutoff valve to OFF.
Turn bomb bay selector valve to BOTH OFF.
Turn selector valve of system just filled to •
TANK TO ENGINE.
CAUTION: DO NOT FILL MORE THAN
ONE SYSTEM AT A TIME AND HAVE
RADIO OFF.
Bomb Bay
Shutoff
Valve
Drain
Turn Bomb Bay
Booster Pump ON
.After Valves Are Set
R.H. Bomb Bay Cell
L. .ff. Bomb Bay Cell
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FILLING ONE MAIN SYSTEM FROM A BOMB BAY FUEL CELL WHILE FEEDING FOUR ENGINES ON
n
B-24 AIRPLANES, FROM No. 41-24176 TO No. 42-40917
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EXAMPLE: fUEL TRANSFER FROM R. H. BOMB BAY FUEL CELL TO No. 1 MAIN SYSTEM
To No. 1
Eng.
To No. 4
Eng.
c)
¢=J
Tank To
Eng.and
Cross Feed
GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS
When system being fllled is within 50 gals of
full, turn bomb bay booster pump OFF.
Turn bomb bay selector valve to BOTH OFF.
'rurn selector valve of system just fl·lled to
TANK TO ENGINE.
CAUTION: DO NOT FILL MORE THAN
ONE SYSTEM AT A TIME AND HA VE
RADIO OFF.
CAUTION: Caps on the bomb bay cells
should not be removed during transfer operations. One crew· member should be on guard
in the bomb bay during transfer- at any indication of fuel overflow slop bomb bay booster
pump and investigate thoroughly.
Bomb Bay
Selector
Valve
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Turn bomb bay
booster pump ON
after valves are set
�RESTRICTED
HEATING SYSTEMS
LEGEND
Erq. No.I Fuel Supply L i n e - Eng. No.2 Fuel 5'.wly Line - Eng. No.3 .Fuel Supply Line - Exhaust Lines
General
Two methods of supplying warmth are provided in the airplane: fuel-fired heaters and
electrically heated clothing. (Also see section
on exhaust heat system for late series B-24's
-pp. 149-150.)
Heaters
Stewart-Warner circulating air heaters are provided for pilot, copilot, radio operator, bombardier, and navigator, and are arra~ged in
, ENGINE NO. 2
ENGINE NO. 3
RESTRICTED
separate systems of source of supply, control,
and heater grouping in most aircraft, as shown
in the table below.
A switch, at the right of the copilot, operates
a master solenoid valve which controls Group
No. l. A switch at the bombardier's panel serves
similarly for Group No. 2.
Manually controlled shut-off valves attached
to the 3-way headers are just forward of the
front spar, right and left, to permit shutting off
fuel supply to heaters in case of master solenoid
valve failure.
SOLENOID SUPPLY VALVE (MAIN)
3-way header (Aux.)
lndiv. shut-off valve
lndiv. shut-off valve
lndiv. shut-off valve
SOLENOID SUPPLY VALVE (MAIN)
3-way header (Aux.)
lndiv. shut-off valve
lndiv. shut~off valve
lndiv. shut-off valve
GROUP 1 .
Pilot
Copilot
Top Gunner
GROUP 2
Radio Operator
Bombardier
Navigator
147
�RESTRICTED
If the manifold pressure is reduced below 15"
on an engine, there is not sufficient pressure
to supply fuel and the heaters supplied by that
engine will be extinguished.
On later systems, there is in the line between
each heater and the header, a solenoid valve,
for the control of •that individual heater. The
individual solenoid valves are useful only as a
means of shutting off one heater while retaining the use of the remaining units. This may be
accomplished by disconnecting · the electrical
plug at the solenoid of any selected heating
unit. Combustion exhaust fumes are led back
to the engine induction systems through asbestos-protected tubes. There are no valves in the
exhaust system. Each heater is equipped with
an electric circulating fan which operates from
the same control circuits as the master solenoids. Igniters to ignite the fuel mixture are
incorporated in each heater and operate automatically when master switch is turned on.
The copilot's switch is a three-position switch;
the three positions are "HEATERS ON,"
"HEATERS OFF," and "DEFROST." With the
switch in position to defrost only, the circulations fans will operate and no heat will be generated. The bombardier's switch has only two
positions, "ON" and "OFF."
To defrost windshields, without heat, turn on
the heater switch to defrost and pull out defroster knobs. This deflects air blast into windshield duct system. Pull out and attach de-
148
£roster hose with the strap clamp mounted at
the bottom of the windshield.
'
To defrost windshields with heat, turn the
heater switch to heat position and pull out defroster knob. This deflects heated air blast into
windshield duct system. Pull out and attach
defroster hose. To stop defrosting action, push
defroster knob in and turn heated off by means
of the copilot's switch.
Caution: If the heaters start smoking after
being shut off, reduce manifold pressure on
No. 2 and No. 3 engines to 15" and turn on
heaters until smoking has stopped. Then turn
off heaters and resume manifold pressure.
This action is necessary in case the solenoid
valves stick and do not shut off the fuel-air
mixture after the electrical system is shut off.
This permits the fuel-air mixture to burn without the fans circulating the air, which will cause
the heater oven to overheat and eventually
burn out. Smoking will also occur if there is
dust on the fins.
Note: Turn the heater on before entering extremely cold conditions to prevent ·solenoids
from freezing up.
If the fan stops, check fuses immediately or
heating element will overheat and burn out.
Heated Clothing
Electrically heated flying suits may be plugged
in at all crew stations and in the bomb bay.
Individual rheostats control temperature.
RESTRICTED
�RESTRICTED
EXHAUST
HEAT SYSTEM
IN LATE B-24'S
In some late series B-24's, heat exchangers in
the engine exhausts provide heat for the cabin,
for anti-icing of the wing and empennage leading edges, and for defrosting the windshields,
nose turret, and top turret.
Cabin heat comes from the exhausts of the
2 inboard engines. Air temperature in the system is regulated automatically by a valve which
admits cold air to the ducts when the temperature rises above pre-set limits. Controls for
this heating system include switches on the
pilot's control pedestal, manually operated registers in the duct outlets, and manually operated damper valves in the ducts themselves.
Heat for anti-icing the leading edges of the
wing center section and the empennage also
comes from the inboard engines; the outboard
engines provide heat for anti-icing the outer
panel leading edges and wingtips. Control
switches are on the same panel as the cabin
heat switches.
Aircraft with this heating system have
double plate glass windshields. Warm air for
defrosting, supplied through ducts from the
main cabin system, is introduced between the
2 panes. The inner panes are removable, and ·
there is stowage space for them on the left side
of the radio compartment.
Operation
Usually only one cabin heat switch needs to
be turned on. With either No. 2 or No. 3
switch on, you can increase heat for the cabin
by turning the empennage anti-icing switch off
if no icing conditions exist, thereby cutting off
hot air flow to the tail and directing more heat
to the cabin. Caution: Don't turn empennage
switch off if both No. 2 andNo.3switchesareon.
To prevent formation of ice on wings, tail and
windshields, turn on all cabin heat and antiicing switches, including the empennage switch,
RESTRICTED
as soon as icing conditions are anticipated and
before ice starts to form.
Use of Manually Operated Dampers
The damper controlling the 2 windshield ducts
is over the forward end of the radio operator's
table on the aft face of the armor plate behind
the copilot's seat. Open this damper only to .
prevent formation of ice on the windshields.
The damper controlling the main heater duct
on the lower left hand side of the cabin is on
the forward bulkhead of the left hand bomb
bay, near the top. The damper for the right
hand main cabin heater duct is on the aft bulkhead of the radio operator's compartment near
the floor on the right side. Don't close these
dampers except to divert more hot air to windshield defrosters. Control cabin heat exclusively with the outlet registers and with No. 2
and No. 3 switches.
The damper which regulates the top turret
defroster is on the aft bulkhead of the radio
operator's compartment, above the right hand
main duct damper. Don't open the defroster
damper except to defrost top turret or compartment side windows.
Dampers for the ducts in the bombardier's
compartment are on the forward end of the
copilot's duct, in the nose compartment near
navigator's table. Don't open these dampers
except when necessary.
A warning light on the pilot's pedestal will indicate the pr.esence of
carbon monoxide in the cabin air if
one of the heat exchangers should
leak. A button near the warning light
re-sets the warning light relay when
the danger of carbon monoxide· is
ended. Turn off cabin heat switches
(either No. 2 or No. 3) immediately
if the warning light goes on. Don't
use the cabin heat system unless the
monoxide detector is installed and
known to be working properly.
149
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DETAIL OF FRESH AIR INTAKE
CONTROL UNIT(FULTON-SYLPHON)
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...-JASTRODOME FLEXIBLE
"-.._!DEFROSTER DUCT
RAM AIR (OIL COOLER)SCOOP
OUTSIDE RAM AIR INTAKE DUCT
CONTROL DAMPERS
HEAT TAKE-OFF DUCT(RAM AIR)
FLEXIBLE DEFROSTER DUCT
EXHAUST INTAKE
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DETAIL OF HEAT EXCHANGER
AND AfR CIRCULATION
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EXHAUST HEAT SYSTEM IN SOME LATE B·24'S
�RESTRICTED
Anti-icers and De-icers Distinguished
ANTI-ICERS,
DE-ICERS
AND DEFROSTERS
The problem of icing and weather flying is too
big a subject for this book, which is restricted
in its scope to specific problems of the °13-24.
• That does not relieve the B-24 pilot of the
obligation to know weather flying and to know
icing problems before attempting flights in
which he may have to use his anti-icing and
de-icing equipment. Intelligent use of anti-icing
and de-icing equipment requires knowledge of
the various kinds of ice, when to stay at your
altitude, when to ascend and when to descend,
and the circumstances under which your plane
· is likely to ice up. You'll find information on
this subject in P. I. F., under "Cold Weather
Operation" i.n the T. 0. for the B-24, in "Instrument Flying in Weather," and in training films.
Don't miss an opportunity to learn all you can
about icing and weather flying. In certain theaters much larger losses are charged to weather
than to enemy action. Your gunners can't drive
off the weather.
Warning: The pilot who takes off ·v~"ithout
complete information on icing levels, relative
saturation, and the probability of encountering
ice is his own worst enemy. The sky makes no
allowances for incompetence. If you can't read
the weather charts, ask the weather officer.
The government pays him a salary for answering your questions.
Remember that the weather that usually
comes with ice brings other distraction: static
noises, strong possibility of intermittent radio
failure, increased fuel consumption under an
icing load, and instrument flying conditions.
You get uneasy and want to descend or mill
around and lose your way. Usually it is better
either to do a 180° turn or fly out your ETA
if you have adequate fuel. Don't get panicky.
Know your weather and know your icing
equipment.
RESTRICTED
Distinguish between these 2 types of equipment. One will prevent icing but has very limited or no effect in removing ice. The other will
remove ice. Anti-icers should be started before
ice forms. De-icers are more effective after ice
has formed hard enough so it will crack off.
SLINGER RING DETAIL
Propeller Anti-Icing System
It is most important to anticipate propeller
icing by knowing the condition of the atmosphere you are flying through. Remember this is
anti-icing equipment. Slinger rings distribute
fluid to spread a protective film over the blades
so ice won't form. The film will keep ice off
when it won't take it off. Therefore, anticipate
ice . .
You can tell the propellers are icing up if
you note spotty discoloration on them or if
small pieces of ice are thrown off against the
fuselage. Immediately increase the flow of fluid
enough to stop further icing. But keep in mind
the probable length of time you will need propeller anti-icing and conserve fluid accordingly.
Equipment
Ice prevention fluid, isopropyl alcohol, is supplied to the slinger rings on each propeller by 2
pumps taking suction from a reservoir tank. On
early airplanes this is a 6-gallon tank located
151
�RESTRICTED
under the flight deck and can be filled in flight.
On later airplanes it is a 21-gallon tank located
on the half deck, refillable only from outside the
fuselage. Plug valves, normally safetied open,
permit shut-off from tank to either pump.
Valves are located directly under the 6-gallon
tank, and on the 21-gallon tank installation
shut-off valves are located on the aft face of
bulkhead at Station 4.1 high in the bomb bay,
right side.
A single rheostat on the instrument panel
simultaneously controls the 2 electric pumps.
A quantity gage is on top of the tanks. The
rheostat flow control is marked in gallons per
hour showing total flow for all 4 engines.
Operation: To start motor turn the rheostat
to the extreme right. This will cause pumps to
give maximum output and will clean the lines
out. Leave in this position about 2 minutes to
fill tubing and start the flow of the anti-icing
liquid to propellers. Then adjust rheostats to
provide the minimum amount of fluid necessary
to keep the propellers free of ice. A flow of 1 to
2 gallons per hour will take care of light to
moderate ice.
Wing and Empennage De-icing: You can see the
ice forming on wing leading edges. Usually it
will start as a narrow whHe line along the center of the de-icing boot and gradually widen.
Avoid using boots until ice is hard enough to
crack off as the boots inflate. Don't allow ice to
build back beyond the effective boot area, or
when boots crack it loose a sharp edge of ice
will remain at the edge of the boot. Then additional ice will build on this, creating burble and
destroying lift. The B-24 will carry a good load
of ice if necessary, but remember you are supported by a highly efficient wing. Anything
that disturbs its normal lift characteristics is
not good.
Normally.rime ice and clear ice will' crack off
immediately when the de-icer boots start to
operate. However, you may encounter ice
which seems rubber-like; it will appear to
stretch instead of crack when the boot starts to
operate. Watch closely. If the ice doesn't crack
as the boots start to operate, turn de-icers off
and wait for the ice to harden; otherwise a hollow space will be formed beneath the ice and
152
boots will inflate without removing it. It is important to know exactly how de-icing equipment works.
Equipment: De-icing is accomplished by rubber
shoes on leading edges of wings and stabilizer.
The pressure side of engine-operated vacuum
pumps on engine No. 1 and engine No. 2 furnish
air for inflation. The suction side of either pump
furnishes suction for deflation; the suction side
of the other pump furnishes suction for the
vacuum-operated instruments.
In case of failure of either pump, the remaining pump will furnish sufficient pressure for •
inflation. In such an emergency, be sure that
the vacuum selector valve handle, on the forward face of Station 4.1, is set so that the instruments receive the vacuum from the pump
which is operating. This means that the boots
will have to depend on external air pressure for
deflation.
A horizontal lever on the copilot's panel is
cable-connected to a control valve high on the
front spar in the bomb bay. Until this valve is
opened, the pressure from both pumps escapes
overboard and the suction from one engine
pump keeps the boots deflated. When the valve
is opened, pressure is distributed to and inflates
the boots in a set order of sequence. In case the
cable between the control lever and the valve
in the bomb bay should break or become disconnected, valve-in the bomb bay can be moved
by hand to operate boots. A suction gage on
pilot's panel shows vacuum level in system for
instruments only. It gives no indication of deicer suction.
Windshield Anti-icing System: Some B-24 airplanes are equipped with hand pumps which
force a spray of isopropyl alcohol on the windshields to prevent ice formation. On these installations, 2 separate tubes from the reservoir
deliver fluid, one to the copilot's hand pump,
outboard of his seat, and the other to the boITubardier's hand pump on the right side of his
_windshield. Two positic;ms, left and right, are
indicated on the copilot's hand pump to direct
the fluid, as desired, to either pil~t's windshield.
This selection is made by pressing the handle
down. Note that this is an anti-icing fluid. Use
as the first suspicion of windshield icing when
RESTRICTED
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ice starts to form in the corners of windshield.
It is lots easier to keep ice from forming than
to get rid of it. The film deposited by the fluid
keeps ice from forming.
Defrosters: The bombardier's and pilots' heaters
are fitted with flexible defroster ducts to direct
warm air to bombardier's sighting window and
to pilots' windshields. On some aircraft the navigator's heater is similarly equipped for defrosting the astrodome. On th~ pilots' heaters, pushpull Ahrens controls on instrument panel; and
on the bombardier's and navigator's heaters,
hand operated shutters, permit use of heaters
for heating or for defrosting.
Pitot Heater: Your airspeed indicator reacts to
the pressure of incoming air in the pitot tubes.
If moisture gets in the tube and freezes, or
forms over the outside, your airspeed will appear to be falling off rapidly when in reality it
is the same as before.
Your first thought before entering clouds
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DIAGRAM OF PITOT TUBE HEATER
should be to turn on your pitot heaters, especially when the temperature is near 0°C. This
· will keep ice from fo;rming. Warm, wet air can
also block off your airspeed indication during a
heavy rain. Use the pitot heater. Pilots have
been known to keep adding more and more
power trying to maintain altitude and airspeed,
flying · for several hours at dangerously high
power, when nothing was wrong except a little
ice in the pitot head.
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o·xvGE·N SYSTEM
There are 2 types of oxygen supply systems in
use: The constant flow and the demand system.
Constant Flow-On ships up to 42-40217 inclusive.
This type uses either AS or AS-A masks. The
mask connects to the regulator with a long,
. slender hose. Small leaks around the mask are
relatively unimportant in this type because ·of
the constant flow of oxygen from the tank
through the regulator. With this steady flow the
length of the hose is immaterial, as no air cushion can back up in the hose to the regulator.
Demand System-On No. 42-40218 and subsequent airplanes.
This type uses either A9, AlO, AlO-R, or B14
masks. The mask connects to the regulator by
a short, stubby hose. This system provides the
proper amount of oxygen at any altitude.
Operational Precautions
Before Flight:
1. Check pressure in oxygen cylinders. Cylinders should be filled to 450 lb. sq. in.; their
pressure will drop to approximately 400 lb.
sq. in. when they cool.
2. Check flow of oxygen through regulators
and masks. Wherever possible, have oxygen
officer on ground check equipment.
3. Be certain hose is tight at regulator outlet
collar ..
4. Be certain male end of rapid disconnect
fitting rubber gasket is in place.
5. Mask should fit airtight, and when so fitted
it should be worn only by the individual for
whom it was adjusted.
6.· Clip hose, by means of the spring clip, to
154
clothing or to parachute harness, not too far
below chin.
7. Check pressure gage.
During Flight:
1. To check oxygen flow to mask from regulator in the constant-flow type pinch hose
lightly several times. A hiss will indicate that
oxygen is flowing.
2. At altitudes over 34,000 feet the reservoir
bag in the constant flow should not collapse.
This can be checked by holding hand loosely
around reservoir bag while breathing normally. Quick or deep breaths will collapse bag.
Be careful not to collapse bag while making this
check.
3. Type AS and AS-A masks can be freed of
ice formation by squeezing air outlets on cheeks
in mask.
4. In demand system, watch the flow indicator to make sure you are getting oxygen.
After Flight:
1. Wipe mask dry, or if possible, wash with
soap and water and dry thoroughly.
2. Do not lend your mask, as strap adjustments may be altered by someone else.
3. Inspect for cracks and leaks in face piece.
Safety Measur~s:
1. Normally, keep the regulator on the demand system with the auto-mix turned "ON."
2. Use oxygen on all flights above 10,000
·
feet.
3. Each crew member should have available
one walk-around bottle. The bottle should be
tested before the airplane leaves the ground.
If it is necessary for a crew member to leave
his station the bottle can be quickly attached
to the oxygen mask. The bottle can be refilled
from the ship's regular supply.
4. Memorize location of bailout bottles. These
bottles are used, when abandoning ship, as an
oxygen supply until reaching an altitude whece
oxygen is not necessary.
5. In night flying use oxygen all the time to
preserve maximum efficiency of night vision.
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�:::ia
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Bombardier 's
Oxygozn Equipment
No,e Turret
Oxygen Equipment
LEGEND
-
Distribution Lines
Filler Lines
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OXYGEN SYSTEM - 24 BOTTLE
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6. Crew members are warned against eating
gas-forming foods or drinking alcoholic beverages within 24 hours before high altitude flying.
Gas expands at high altitudes. Abdominal
cramps will result, retarding mental alertness
and reducing physical fitnesf..
7. The amount of oxygen needed by each individual varies. Active crew members require
more oxygen than those at rest. The most common symptoms which indicate a lack of oxygen
at high altitude are:
a. The body feels extremely cold or warm
(sweating may occur).
b. Unusual exhilaration.
c. Lassitude and sleepiness.
d. Mind not alert.
8. Lack of oxygen at first is a deceiver; it
gives a false sense of exhilaration and selfconfidence. Do not wait until the last minute
to turn on the oxygen. If at any time a crew
member is doubtful whether he is receiving
enough oxygen, a greater amount should be
turned on. If the additional oxygen does not
help, a nearby crew member should be notified.
9. If a crew member becomes unconscious
from lack of oxygen:
.
a. When above 25,000 feet, descend to a
lower altitude, if possible.
b. On constant-flow system open regulator
to full flow. On demand system, open
emergency valve on regulator.
10. If ship's oxygen supply falls below 100 lb.
sq. in., descend immediately to altitude where
oxygen is not needed.
EQUIPMENT
Constant-Flow Type
Ten G-1 oxygen cylinders are used on airplanes
up to 41-11938 (5 in each wing outboard of the
wheel wells). Eighteen G-1 cylinders are used
on airplanes 41-23640 to 42-40217 inclusive.
These are located over the wing center section
and around the bottom turret well.
Both the 10 and 18-cylinder systems have, in
addition, 2 type D-2 cylinders attached to the
under side of the top gunner's seat. For both
systems a manually operated flow regulator
is at each outlet.
156
Constant-flow Type Mask
Oxygen Indicators
Regulator dials marked in thousands of feet
are located at each outlet. When the regulator
is set at the correct flying altitude, an attached
flow dial indicates amount of flow.
Location of Controls
Oxygen Outlets-At each crew station and at
right of flight deck hatch in bomb bay.
Main Shut-Off Valve-On rear spar to right
of center line. Available from radio compartment over rear bomb bay.
Demand Type
Cylinders-This system has 9 groups of cylinders with a demand regulator at each crew
station: 22 oxygen cylinders of type G-1 in 8
groups and 2 cylinders of type D-2 in the 9th
group. The latter, for the top gunner, is secured
to the underside of his seat. The 2 D-2 cylinders are recharged from the radio operator's
main line, or in an emergency, from any group.
One adapter is installed on the top turret line
between the two cylinders.
These groups provide at least 2 cylinders'
supply for each man ( a total of approximately
9 hours' supply for a crew of 10) at 30,000 feet.
Check valves are installed to prevent loss of
oxygen in the event a cylinder or line is destroyed by gunfire.
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-I
~
n
Oxygen
Filler
-I
Oxygen
Supply
Oxygen
Lines
m
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Line
Line
,to Manifolds
to
between
Regulators
Botlles
&
Manifolds
I Bottle on
Side Pane l
Bombardiers
Regulator &
Outlet
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OXYGEN SYSTEM - 18 BOTTLE
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Demand-type oxygen mask. Note the way prongs on the quick-disconnect fitting are pried apart.
Regulator Panel Locations
There are now 13 outlets in place of 11 formerly
used. The A-12 regulator is mounted on a panel
at each crew station as follows:
Forward fuselage compartment:
One on the left side of the nose compartment
for the nose gunner (B-24J).
One on the right side of the nose compartment for the bombardier.
One on the right side of the nose compartment for the navigator.
Two under the instrument panel, one at each
end, for the pilot and copilot.
One aft and above the radio operator's table.
One on side of the top turret gunner's seat.
One on the right hand side, aft of bulkhead
at Station 4.1 in the bomb bay, generally used
by the engineer.
Aft fuselage compartment:
One on the left side between Stations 6.1
and 6.2 for bottom turret operator.
One on the left side between Stations 7.3
and 7.4 for the camera operator.
Two between Stations 7.2 and 7.3, one on
each side, for side gunners.
One just forward of Station 9.2 on the right
side for the rear turret gunner.
158
Type K-1 Pressure Gauge-The oxygen pressure gage indicates the pressure of the available oxygen in the supply cylinders. The dial
is calibrated to indicate pounds per square
inch pressure. Satisfactory operation requires
a pressur~ from 100 lb. sq. in. minimum to 450
lb. sq. in. maximum.
Type A-1 Oxyg~n Flow Indicator-The A-1
type indicator, on the panel to the left of the
pressure gage, is connected directly into the
high-pressure oxygen flow. When oxygen
passes through it to the gage, a red ball floats
to the top of the indicator. Type A-1, however,
requires several extra fittings from which leaks
are more apt to occur.
Type A-3 Oxygen Flow Indicator-This type
indicator is connected to the regulator itself.
It is a pressure indicating instrument actuated
by the change of pressure. It has a blinker
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which opens when the person wearing the mask
inhales. The A-3 indicator is in use on airplane
42-72765 and subsequent ships.
Moving the valve lever to the Auto-Mix
"ON" position.
Type A-12 Regulator-The A-12 regulator (Pioneer Type 2850-Al) has been developed for use
in high altitude flying and automatically delivers the proper mixture of air and oxygen to
sustain life in the sub-stratosphere. It conserves
the available supply of oxygen by furnishing
only the amount of oxygen needed at any altitu_de. The regulator consists of the following
mechanisms:
A manual valve shuts off the air when a flow
of pure oxygen is required. The valve is operated by a lever on the side of the case and is
marked Auto-Mix "ON" and "OFF." (Regulators of recent issue may be marked "NORMAL OXYGEN" instead of "ON," and "100%
OXYGEN" instead of "OFF.")
Note: The "ON" ("NORMAL OXYGEN")
position is used for normal flying operation.
A bypass manually operated emergency
valve on the oxygen intake, at the bottom of
the regulator, permits a steady flow of oxygen
when needed.
A pressure reducer controls the oxygen tank
pressure to about 40-60 lb. sq. in. so that the
action of the demand valve is unaffected by
changes of the tank pressure. A check valve on
the air inlet prevents the escape of oxygen
when exhaling.
System Filler Valve-The system filler valve is
located on the outside of the airplane (left
lower side) between Stations 6.1 and 6.2, and
the whole system can be filled through this
intake valve. It is in a closed box behind a
cover plate door in the skin, free from contact
with oil, grease, or foreign matter.
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~ , , Because there is no oxygen system filler relief valve, under
no circumstances should the A-12 regulator be installed on an oxygen cylinder of greater than 500 lb. sq. in.
capacity.
Two adapters are installed in a stowage bag
attached on the inside of the plate door. One
adapter is used for charging the system with
British equipment, the other when using American equipment. A card provides instructions
for filling the system and for the correct use
of the adapters.
Top Turret Filler Valve-A new shield has been
installed over the filler valve of the top turret
oxygen tanks. This shield is made of metal; a
small plate giving filling instructions is on the
end. The location of the turret guns above this
valve constitutes a definite hazard unless protection against the possibility of excess oil and
grease from the guns coming in contact with
the valve is provided. This change took place
on airplane No. 42-40786 and subsequent aircraft.
Under no conditions allow any oil or grease to
come in contact with any oxygen equipment.
Carbon Monoxide
Some recent B-24's have a red warning light
on the instrument panel to indicate the presence of carbon monoxide in the cabin. (See Exhaust Heating, Page 149.) If this warning light
goes on, protection against the carbon monoxide can be gained in one of two ways: By
turning off the heater, and thus removing the
source of the gas, or by having all crew members don their oxygen masks, with the AutoMix turned to the "OFF" ("100% OXYGEN")
position. Temperature or other factors may
make turning off the heater inadvisable, but the
use of pure oxygen is a sure safeguard against
atmospheric contaminajion.
159
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VENTILATING SYSTEM
Special ventilation is provided only for the pilot, copilot, and radio operator.
In early model airplanes the bombardier receives fresh air through a manually
rotated slotted disc in the hand hole normally used to clean the bombsight
window.
The pilot and copilot receive a direct blast of fresh air through ducts connected
to the left and right pitot-static tubes respectively. Manually rotated ball and
socket ventilators, at the outboard ends of the instrument panel, control fresh
air supply.
The flight compartment receives fresh air through an intake duct through a
"Y" to manually controlled anemostat diffusers high on the fuselage, right and
left at Station 3.2.
[60
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THE C-1 AUTO PILOT
-
The C-1 autopilot is an electromechanical
robot which automatically controls the airplane
in straight and level flight, or maneuvers the
airplane in response to the fingertip control of
the human pilot or bombardier.
Actually, the autopilot works in much the
same way as the human pilot in maintaining
straight and level flight, in making corrections
necessary to hold a given course and altitude,
and in applying the nec~ssary pressure on the
controls to turns, banks, etc. The difference is
that the autopilot acts instantaneously and
with a precision that is not humanly possible.
The precision of even the most skillful human pilot is limited by his own reaction time,
i.e., the interval between his perception of a
certain condition and his action to correct or
control it. Reaction time itself is governed by
such human fallibilities as fatigue, inability to
detect errors the instant they occur, errors in
judgment and muscle coordination.
The autopilot, on the other hand, detects
flight deviations the instant they occur, and
just as instantaneously operates the controls to
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....
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.
"'· · ..
,· .
.... ,
. ,. ....· ; ·.
correct the deviation. Properly adjusted, the
autopilot will neither overcontrol nor undercontrol the airplane, but will keep it flying
straight and level with all 3 control surfaces
operating in full coordination.
How It Works
The C-1 autopilot consists of various separate
units electrically 1.nterconnected to operate as a
· system. The operation of these units is explained in detail in AN-11-60AA-l. A general
over-all understanding of their functions and
relation to each other can be acquired by
studying the accompanying illustration.
Assume that the airplane in the illustration is
flying straight and level and that the autopilot
is at work.
Suddenly turbulent air turns the airplane
away from its established heading. The gyrooperated directional stabilizer (1) in the bombardier's compartment detects this deviation
and moves the directional panel (4) to one side
or the other, depending upon the direction of
the deviation.
161
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The directional panel contains 2 electrical
devices, the banking pot (5) and the rudder
pick-up pot (6), which send signals to the
aileron and rudder section of the amplifier (16)
whenever the directional panel is operated.
These signals are amplified and converted (by
means of magnetic switches or relays) into
electrical .impulses which cause the aileron and
rudder Servo units (15 and 18) to operate the
ailerons and rudder of the airplane in the
proper direction and amount to turn the airplane back to its original heading.
Similarly, if the nose of the airplane drops,
the vertical flight gyro (10) detects the vertical
deviation and operates the elevator pick-up
pot (11) which sends an electrical signal t<? the
elevator section of the amplifier. The signal is
amplified and relayed in the form of electrical
impulses to the elevator Servo unit (19) which
in turn raises the elevators the proper amount
to bring the airplane to level flight.
If one wing drops · appreciably, the vertical
flight gyro operates the aileron pick-up pot
(12), the skid pot (13), and the up-elevator
pot (14). The signals caused by the operation
of these units are transmitted to their respective (aileron, rudder, and elevator) sections of
the amplifier. The resulting impulses to the
DIRECTIONAL STABILIZER
P. D. I. POT
DASH POT
DIRECTIONAL PANEL
5 . BANKING POT
6. RUDDER PICK-UP POT
l.
2.
3.
4.
7. P. D. I.
8. AUTOPILOT CONTROL PANEL
9. TURN CONTROL
10. VERTICAL FllGHLGYRO
11. ELEVATOR PICK-UP POT
12. AILERON PICK-UP POT
13. SKID POT
14. UP-ELEVATOR POT
l 5. AILERON SERVO
16. AMPLIFIER
17. ROTARY INVERTER
18. RUDDER SERVO
19. ELEVATOR SERVO
162
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aileron, rudder, and elevator Servo units cause
each of these units to operate its respective
control surface just enough to bank and turn
the airplane back to a level-flight attitude.
When the human pilot wishes to make a turn,
he merely sets the turn control knob (9) at the
degree of bank and in the direction of turn
desired. This control sends signals, through the
aileron and rudder sections of the amplifier, to
the aileron and rudder Servo units which operate ailerons and rudder in the proper manner
to execute a perfectly coordinated (non-slipping, non-skidding) turn. As the airplane
banks, the vertical flight gyro operates the
aileron, skid, and up-elevator pots (12, 13, 14).
The resulting signals from the aileron and skid
pots cancel the signals to the aileron and rudder Servo units to streamline these controls
during the turn.
The signals from the up-elevator pot cause
the elevators to rise just enough to maintain
altitude. When the desired turn is completed,
the pilot turns the turn control back to zero
and the airplane levels off on its new course. A
switch in the turn control energizes the directional arm lock on the stabilizer, wpich prevents the stabilizer from interfering with the
turn by performing its normal direction-correcting function.
The autopilot control panel (8) provides the
pilot with fingertip controls by which he can
conveniently engage or disengage the system,
adjust the alertness or speed of its responses to
flight deviations, or trim the system for varying
load and flight conditions.
The pilot direction indicator, or PDI (7), is a
remote indicating device operated by the PDI
pot (2). When the autopilot is used, the PDI
indicates to the pilot when the system and airplane are properly trimmed. Once the autopilot
is engaged, with PDI centered, the autopilot
makes the corrections automatically.
The rotary inverter (17) is a motor-generator
unit which converts direct current from the airplane's battery into 105-cycle alternating current for operation of the autopilot.
HOW TO OPERATE THE C-1 AUTOPILOT
1. Set all pointers on the control panel in the
up position.
2. Make sure that all switches on the control
panel are in the "OFF" position.
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163
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1. Turn on the master switch.
SERVO
,01
5. Engage the autopilot. Put out aileron telltale lights with the aileron centering knob, then
throw on the aileron engaging switch. Repeat
the operation for rudder, then for elevator.
2. Five minutes later, turn on PDI switch
( and Servo switch, if separate).
RUD . .
ELEV.
3. Ten minutes after turning on the master
switch, trim the plane for level flight at cruising
speed by reference to flight instruments.
6. Make final autopilot trim corrections. If
necessary, use centering knobs to level wings
and center PDI.
4. Have the bombardier disengage the autopilot clutch, center PDI and lock it in place by
depressing the directional control lock. The
PDI is held centered until the pilot has completed the engaging procedure. Then the autopilot clutch is re-engaged, and the directional
arm lock released.
Alternate Method: The pilot centers PDI by
turning the airplane in direction of the PDI
needle. Then resume straight and level flight.
164
NEVER ADJUST MECHANICAL
TRIM TABS WHILE
THE AUTOPILOT IS ENGAGED
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FLIGHT ADJUSTMENTS AND OPERATION
After the C-1 autopilot is in operation, carefully analyze the action of the airplane to make
sure all adjustments have been properly made
for smooth, accurate flight control.
When both tell-tale lights in any axis are
extinguished, it is an indication the autopilot is
ready for engaging in that axis.
Before engaging, each centering knob is used
to adjust the autopilot control reference point
to the straight and level flight position of the
corresponding control surface. After engaging,
centering knobs are used to make small attitude adjustments.
Sensitivity is comparable to a human pilot's
reaction time. With sensitivity set high, the
autopilot responds quickly to apply a correction for even the slightest deviation. If sensitivity is set low, flight deviations must be relatively large before the autopilot will apply its
corrective action.
Ratio is the amount of control surface movement applied by the autopilot in correcting a
given deviation. It governs the speed of the airplane's response to corrective autopilot actions.
Proper ratio adjustment depends on airspeed.
If ratio is too high, the autopilot will overcontrol the airplane and produce a ship hunt; if
ratio is too low, the autopilot will undercontrol
and flight corrections will be too slow. After
ratio adjustments have been made) centering
may require readjustment.
To adjust turn compensation, have bombardier disengage autopilot clutch and move engaging knob to extreme right or extreme left.
Airplane should bank 18° as indicated by artifi.cial horizon. If it does not, adjust aileron compensation (bank trimmer) to attain 18° bank.
Then, if turn is not coordinated, adjust rudder
compensation (skid trimmer) to center inclinometer ball. Do not use aileron or rudder
compensation knobs to adjust coordination of
turn control turns.
REMEMBER THE ROLE THAT THE AUTOPILOT CAN PLAY IN EMERGENCIES
1. If the control cables are damctged or
severed between the pilot's compart.ment
and the Servo units in the tail, the autopilot can bridge the gap. There have been
many instances where the autopilot has
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been used thus to fly an airplane with
damaged controls.
2. If the autopilot has been set up for level
flight, it can be used to hold the airplane
straight and level while abandoning ship.
165
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The turn control transfer has no effect unless
the installation includes a remote turn control.
The dashpot on the stabilizer regulates the
amount of rudder kick applied by the autopilot
to correct rapid deviations in the turn axis. If a
rudder hunt dev_elops which cannot be eliminated by adjustment of rudder ratio or sensitivity, the dashpot may require adjustment.
The turn control is used by the pilot to turn
the airplane while flying under automatic control. To adjust turn control, first make sure
turn compensation adjustments have been
properly made, then set turn control pointer at
beginning of trip-lined area on dial. Airplane
This is accomplished b_y loosening the locknut
on the dashpot, turning the knurled ring up or
down until hunting ceases, then tightening the
locknut.
should bank 30°, as indicated by artificial horizon. If it doesn't, remove cap from aileron
trimmer and adjust trimmer until a 30° bank is
attained. Then, if turn is not coordinated (inclinometer ball not centered), adjust rudder
trimmer to center ball. Make final adjustments
with both trimmers and replace caps. Set turn
control at zero to resume straight and level
flight; then re-center.
Never operate the
Turn Control
without first making
sure the PDI
is centered
166
Cold Weather Operation-When temperatures are between -12° and 0°C (10° and
32°F) autopilot units must be run for 30 minutes before engaging. If accurate flight control
is desired immediately after takeoff, perform
the autopilot warm-up before takeoff by turning on the master switch during the engine
run-up-but make sure autopilot is off during
takeoff. If warm-up is performed during flight,
allow 30 ·m inutes after turning on master
switch · before engaging. When temperatures
are below -12°C (10°F) units must be preheated for one hour before takeoff. Use special
heating covers or blankets with heating tubes.
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,,
FLYING THE PDI MANUALLY
\\
-------------ill=
~~ ::=,----K
,, /
1. Check with bombardier for proper position of PDI needle for a left turn, right turn,
and neutral or "O" position.
2. When bombardier's PDI
is left, pilot's
PDI is right, and vice versa.
,, ,, /
,, /
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/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
,, /
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
,/l),e d.e ~~ 'if<eue
Normally bombing will be done while using
the autopilot. However, if the autopilot is not
functioning the pilot may use the PD!.
1. To center the PDI needle, turn the airplane in the direction of the needle.
2. At the beginning of the bombing run, the
pilot usually can expect maximum PDI corrections. A void tendency to overcorrect by refraining from leading the needle.
3. No matter how slight the deviation of the
PDI needle from "O," the needle must be returned to "O" immediately.
4. Set turns must be coordinated aileron and
rudder turns, in order to make the desired degree of turn more rapidly and to avoid any
excessive sliding of the bombsight lateral bubble and induced precession of the gyro.
5. To avoid tumbling of the bombsight gyro,
banks must never exceed 18 °.
6. Keep PDI on "O" until bombardier calls
"Bombs away."
167
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THE FORMATION STl'CK
TRANSFER CONTROL BUTTON
•
~
MICROPHONE SWITCH
TRIGGER
ADJUSTABLE ARM REST
•
~ CONTROL MECHANISM
The formation stick is a miniature control stick,
working through the autopilot, that enables you
and your copilot to maneuver your airplane
quickly and with a minimum of effort. You use
the formation stick as you would the control
stick of a primary trainer-forward and back
for descents and climbs, sideways for banks.
Sideways movement of the stick controls both
ailerons and rudders in coordination, eliminating the need for separate rudder control. Movement of the stick electrically actuates the servo
units of the autopilot, which in turn move the
control surfaces.
168
There are two sticks, one on the pilot's left,
the other on the copilot's right. Only one stick
is engaged at a time; transfer switches shift
control of the airplane from the pilot's stick to
the copilot's, and vice versa. Push-to-talk trigger switches on -both formation sticks control
the radio microphones.
There is a four-position function selector that
determines to what extent the formation stick
will control the airplane. These positions are:
1. "OFF"-In this position the autopilot operates normally and flys the airplane, the stick
having no control.
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FORMATION STICKS
ON
ON
ELEV.
ONLY
BOOST," or "ON ELEV. ONLY," depending
upon the type of operation desired.
To Transfer Control
To transfer control from pilot stick to copilot
stick, push the button on top of the copilot stick.
To regain control, the pilot pushes his button.
If both buttons are pressed at the same time, the
pilot gets control. When the formation stick is
first engaged, the pilot has control automat- ·
ically.
C-1 AUTOPILOT
2. "ON SERVO BOOST" -The stick is in
direct control of the autopilot servos and you
must use it as if it were mechanically linked to
the surface controls. Use this position when you
want quick maneuvering, as in a wing position
of a tight formation.
3. "ON ELEV. ONLY"-The stick provides
only vertical control of the airplane, the autopilot controlling ailerons and rudder. The
bombardier makes turns with the bombsight
autopilot attachment, or the pilot can use the
autopilot turn control. Use this position when
the bombardier has control of the airplane.
4. "ON" - The autopilot is flying the airplane,
with the stick working like the autopilot turn
control, except that it provides vertical as well
as bank control. Use this position when leading
a formation, in a wing position of a loose formation, or in other situations where little maneuvering is required.
How to Use
1. Before takeoff, check both autopilot
master switch and the formation stick function
selector in the "OFF" position.
2. In flight, when ready to use the formation
stick, set up the autopilot in the normal manner.
3. Engage the formation stick by turning
function selector to "ON," "ON SERVO
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To Disengage Stick
An autopilot release switch on the wheel of
each regular control · column permits either
pilot or copilot to return the airplane to manual
control. Momentary pressure on either switch
immediately disengages all three autopilot
servos.
To re-engage the formation stick after the
release switch has been used, turn off all autopilot switches, retrim the airplane, and then
engage autopilot and formation stick in the
normal manner.
However, if the release switch is pressed
accidentally and the formation stick has not
been moved while the autopilot is disengaged,
you can re-engage the formation stick by snapping the autopilot switch off and then right on
again, turning the other autopilot switches on
without the usual adjustments. Do not use this
method unless you are sure the formation stick
has not been moved while the autopilot was off.
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SUGGESTED ENGAGING PROCEDURE FOR LEAD AIRPLANE
1. After take-off, check that the function
selector is in the "OFF" position.
2. Turn the tell-tale light shutter switch on.
3. Center the turn control knob.
4. Place the turn control transfer knob to
"Pilot" position.
5. Turn on C-1 master switch.
6. Manually trim airplane for desired flight
attitude.
7. Set all C-1 control knobs to "pointers up"
position.
Note: All controls must be previously adjusted in flight by competent personnel for best
performance .under expected conditions and
this adjustment indexed by fixing the pointers
in the "Up" position.
8. Turn on PDI and servo switch 10 minutes
after turning on master switch.
9. Have Bombardier disengage autopilot
clutch arm to center PDI; and press down on
directional arm lock to keep PDI centered.
10. Put out aileron tell-tale lights by adjusting aileron centering knob.
11. Snap aileron switch on.
12. Check gyro horizon and readjust aileron
centering to level wings.
13. Put out rudder tell-tale lights with rudder centering knob.
14. Snap rudder switch on.
15. Have Bombardier re-engage autopilot
clutch and release directional arm lock.
16. Readjust rudder centering knob to center
PDI if necessary.
17. Put out elevator telltale lights with elevator centering knob.
18. Snap elevator switch on.
19. Readjust elevator centering if necessary.
20. Turn function selector to "ON" position.
The formation sticks may now be used to make
coordinated turns up to approximately 25° of
bank and also to control the elevator.
SUGGESTED ENGAGING PROCEDURE FOR WING AIRPLANES
1. After take-off, turn the function selector
to the "ON SERVO BOOST" position.
2. Turn the tell-tale light shutter switch on.
3. Center turn control knob.
4. Place turn control transfer kpob in "Pilot"
position.
5. Have bombardier disengage autopilot
clutch, move clutch arm to center PDI, and
press down op Directional Arm Lock to keep
the PDI centered.
6. Turn on C-1 master switch. (This will lock
the directional arm.)
7. Have bombardier re-engage autopilot
clutch and remove hand from directional arm
lock.
8. Manually trim airplane for desired flight
attitude.
9. Set all C-1 control knobs to "Pointers Up"
position.
Note: All controls must be previously adjusted in flight by competent personnel for best
performance under expected conditions and
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this adjustment indexed by fixing the pointers
in the "Up" position.
10. Turn on PDI and servo switch, not less
than one minute after the master switch was
engaged. Note: If Function Selector is left in
the "ON SERVO BOOST" position, it is not
necessary to wait ten minutes for the gyros to
erect.
11. Put out aileron tell-tale lights by adjusting aileron centering knob.
12. Snap on aileron switch.
13. Use formation stick to maintain aileron
control as soon as aileron switch is snapped on.
14. Put out rudder tell-tale lights by adjusting rudder centering knob.
15. Snap on rudder switch.
16. Use formation stick for both aileron and
rudder control after rudder switch is snapped
on.
17. Put out elevator tell-tale lights by adjusting elevator centering knob.
18. Snap on elevator switch. The formation
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stick can now be used to control the flight of
the airplane in all axis.
The function selector knob may be turned to
any one of the four positions: "ON SERVO
BOOST," "OFF," "ON," or "ELEV. ONLY"
to give the desired control.
"ON SERVO BOOST" Position
This selector setting is to be used when flying a
wing position in a tight formation or whenever
quick maneuvering is desired.
To maneuver the airplane, move the stick in
the same manner as a manual control stick
would be moved.
The three centering knobs may be used to
trim the airplane for the desired attitude with
the stick in the normal center position.
Do not adjust the turn control trimmers
during "ON SERVO BOOST" operation.
Aileron arid rudder ratio may be adjusted to
coordinate the controls for going into a bank
or coming out of one but will have no effect
while the controls are streamlined in the bank.
Therefore, some slipping will be noticed in steep
continuous banks.
Do not attempt to adjust the dashpot during
"ON SERVO BOOST" operation since the
dashpot has no effect on the operation of the
autopilot with the directional arm lock engaged.
"OFF" Position
Whenever it is desired to fly an autopilot without using the sticks, turn the selector to "OFF."
"ON" Position
Use this selector position when leading a formation, in a wing position of a loose formation, or
whep. very little maneuvering is desired, such
as for course corrections on cross-country
flights. In the "ON" position the stick is handled
in the following manner:
' 1. For straight and level flights, leave the
stick in center, and the autopilot will automatically maintain straight and level flight.
2. To climb or glide, move the stick backward or forward a distance sufficient to produce
the desired change in attitude, and hold it there
until ready to return to level flight. Release the
stick or return it to center to return the airplane to level flight.
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3. For a turn, move the stick from center in
the desired direction a distance sufficient to
produce the desired bank and turn. Maximum
bank obtainable is approximately 25 degrees.
Hold the stick in that position until the turn is
complete. Return the stick to center to come
out of the turn.
Streamlining of controls and application of
up-elevator in the turn are automatically ac- ·
complished by the vertical flight gyro of the
autopilot. More or less elevator may be applied
by moving the stick forward or backward. Coordination of turns may be adjusted with the
turn control trimmers.
Sensitivity and ratio adjustments may be
made for flight conditions. If there is a tendency
of the airplane to hunt in the turn axis, the
dashpot may require adjusting.
Centering adjustments of the aileron, rudder,
and elevator centering knobs may be used to
adjust the attitude of the airplane. Make adjustments only with the stick centered.
"ON ELEV. ONLY" Position
Use this position when the bombardier has
control. Hold the stick back to climb, in a forward position to dive. The rate of climb or dive
will be governed by the distance the stick
moved from center. Movement of the stick to
right or left will have no effect. Turns may be
made by the directional panel (bombardier) or
the autopilot turn control.
Changing Function Selector Position
Always hold the airplane level while changing the selector from one position to another.
Make sure that the PDI is on zero before
changing from any position to "ON SERVO
BOOST." This is necessary to insure that the
erecting cut-out switch in the directional panel
is not closed when the directional arm is locked.
The autopilot master switch must have been
on for at least 10 minutes before the function
selector is moved from the "ON SERVO
BOOST" position in order to give the autopilot
gyros time to erect. If banks have exceeded 40
degrees the autopilot gyros may have tumbled
and the function selector should not be moved
from "ON SERVO BOOST" position for at
least 10 minutes after the last steep bank.
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TIPS ON USING FORMATION STICK
1. Make sure PDI is on zero before turning
function selector - to "ON SERVO BOOST"
position. Otherwise an abrupt turn may result.
2. Remember that with the selector in "ON
SERVO BOOST" position the autopilot has no
control. Use the formation stick as if it were a
manual control.
3. Don't use the autopilot turn control when
the selector is in "ON SERVO BOOST" position.
4. Don't exceed 40 ° banks; the autopilot gyro
may tumble. A tumbled gyro will not affect the
flying characteristics while the selector is in
"ON SERVO BOOST" position. However,
when the function sel~ctor is moved to any
other position a sudden maneuver results. If
you do exceed a 40 ° bank fly the airplane
straight and level for about 10 minutes to allow
the gyro to right itself before turning the function s·e lector from "ON SERVO BOOST" position.
5. Don't use the formation stick as a handhold or hat-rack. You can break it.
6. Don't use the formation stick for landing
unless your manual controls fail. The stick
doesn't provide separate aileron and rudder
control, and provides less movement of control
surfaces than manual operation.
7. Since the formation stick works through
the autopilot, remember to observe the same
precautions when using it as you do when using
the autopilot alone.
8. Don't expect the formation stick to work
properly unless the autopilot is functioning as
it should. Use the autopilot ground checklist
prior to flight.
PILOT'S GROUND CHECKLIST FOR
FORMATION STICK
1. Complete the autopilot ground check, with
the exception of the last step, leaving the autopilot engaged.
2. Set the formation stick function selector
at "ON."
3. Move pilot's stick to the extreme right.
The control wheel should turn clockwise, and
the right rudder pedal should move forward.
Make same check to the left.
With the stick held off center, have the directional arm lock on the directional stabilizer
checked, to make sure that the arm is held
securely. Then release the stick and see that it
returns to center automatically, returning control wheel and rudder pedals to center as it
moves. ·
With the formation stick in center, make sure
the directional arm lock is released.
4. Move the formation stick forward, then
back. The control column should follow the
stick movement, and when stick is released
both stick and control colun::m should return to
center automatically.
172
5. Press transfer button on top of copilot's
stick, to give this stick control. Then repeat the
above check. Transfer control back to pilot's
stick.
6. Move the function selector to "ON SERVO
BOOST." Then move the stick to each side and
forward and back, making sure that all controls move in the proper directions. The control response should be the same as with the
function selector at "ON," except that the
aileron and rudder controls may not move as
far.
7. Move function selector to "ON ELEV.
BOOST." Then move pilot's stick backward
and forward to check operation of elevator control. The control column should move only
about one-third as far as it does with the function selector in the "ON" position. Movement of
the stick sideways should not affect the ailerons
or rudders.
8. Press the transfer button on the copilot's
stick and move the stick to make sure that this
stick now has control.
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9. Press the autopilot release switch on the
copilot's control wheel and check operations of
controls to make sure they operate freely and
autopilot is disengaged.
10. Snap the autopilot master switch "OFF,"
then immediately back "ON," and re-engage
the remaining autopilot switches.
11. Move pilot's stick to make sure it has
regained control.
12. Press autopilot's release switch on pilot's
control wheel and check operation of controls
to make sure they operate freely and autopilot
is disengaged.
13. Check operation of pilot's and copilot's
microphone switches. To check, turn radio control switch to "INTER-COM" position. Then
squeeze trigger on each formation stick, while
using microphone and listening on headset.
14. Move function selector to "OFF," and
turn off autopilot master switch.
PILOT'S GROUND CHECKLIST FOR
THE C•I AUTOPILOT
1. Center turn control.
2. Turn on C-1 master switch bar.
3. Set control transfer knob at "PILOr."
4. Set tell-tale shutter switch "ON."
5. Set all adjustment knobs to pointers-up
position, making sure pointers are not loose.
6. Tell bombardier to center PDI.
7. Turn on Servo PDI switch.
8. ·o perate controls through extreme range
several times, observing that tell-tale lights
flicker and go out as streamline position is
reached from either direction.
9. Turn on aileron, rudder, and elevator
switches.
10. Turn aileron centering knob clockwise,
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then counter-clockwise, observing that wheel
turns to the right and then to the left.
11. Repeat Item 10 for rudder and elevator,
observing action.
12. Have bombardier move directional arm
for full right turn, then to left, observing to
see if aileron and rudder move in proper direction.
13. Have bombardier center PDI and engage
secondary clutch.
14. Rotate turn control knob for right and
left turns, observing aileron and rudder controls for proper movement.
15. If all checks are satisfactory, turn the
C-1 master switch bar "OFF."
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THE GYRO FLUI- GAT E CO MPASS
The gyro flux gate compass, remotely located
in the wing or tail of the airplane, converts the
earth's magnetic forces into electrical impulses
to produce precise directional readings that can
be duplicated on instruments at all desired
points in the airplane.
Unlike the magnetic needle, it will not go off
its reading in a· dive, overshoot in a turn, hang
in rough weather, or go haywire in polar
regions.
Development of the Flux Gate ·
The gyro flux gate compass was developed to
fill the need for an accurate compass for longrange navigation. The presence of so many
magnetic materials (armor, electrical circuits,
etc.) in the navigator's compartment made it
almost impossible to find a desirable location
for the direct-reading magnetic compass.
To eliminate this difficulty, it became neces;.
sary to place the magnetic element of the n~vigator's compass outside the compartment, i.e.,
to use a remote indicating compass. The unit
which is remotely located is called the transmitter. The unit used by the navigator is the
master indicator. For the benefit of the pilot
and such other crew members as may have
needs for compass readings, auxiliary instruments called repeater indicators may be installed in other parts of the airplane.
Units of the Flux Gate Compass
The gyro flux gate compass consists of 3
units which are analogous to the brain, heart,
and muscles of the human body. The transmitter, located in the wing or tail of the airplane, is the brain of the instrument. The amplifier is the source of power for the compass
and corresponds to the human heart. The master indicator does the work of turning a pointer
and performs a function similar to that of the
muscles in the human body.
1. The Brain.-Inside the remotely placed
transmitter there is a magnetic sensitive element called the flux gate which picks up the
174
direction signal by induction and transmits it
to the master indicator. This element consists
of 3 small coils, arranged in a triangle and held ·
on a horizontal plane by a gyro. Each coil has a
special soft iron core, and consists of a primary
( or excitation) winding, and a secondary winding from which the signal is obtained.
Because each leg of the flux gate is at a different angle to the earth's magnetic field, and
the induced voltage is relative to the angle,
each leg produces a different voltage. When
the angular relationship between the flux gate
and the earth's magnetic field is changed, there
is a relative change in the voltages in the 3 legs
of the secondary. These voltages are the motivating force for the gyro flux gate compass master indicator which provides indications of the
exact position of the flux gate in relation to the
earth's magnetic field.
Each coil is a direction sensitive element; but
one alone would provide an ambiguous reading
because it could tell north from east, for instance, but not north from south. Therefore, it
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mechanical power to drive the pointer on the
main instrument dial. The pointer is driven
through a cam mechanism which automatically
corrects the reading for compass deviation so
that a corrected indication is obtained on all
headings. The shaft of the pointer is geared to
another small transmitting unit in the master
indicator which will operate as many as six
repeat indicators at other locations.
The amplifier, master indicators and repeaters all are unaffected by local magnetic disturbances.
How to Operate the Compass
1s necessary to employ 3 coils and combine
their output to give the direction signal.
2. The Heart.-The amplifier furnishes the
various excitation voltages at the proper frequency to the transmitter and master indicator.
It amplifies the autosyn signal which controls
the master indicator and serves as a junction
box for the whole compass system.
Power for the amplifier comes from the airplane's inverter and is converted to usable
forms for other units. The input of the amplifier is 400-cycle alternating current and various
voltages may be used depending upon the
source available.
3. The Muscle.-The master indicator is the
muscle of the system because it furnishes the
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1. Leave the toggle switch on the flux gate
amplifier "ON" at all times so that the compass
will start as soon as the airplane's inverter is
turned on.
2. Leave the caging switch in the "UNCAGE" position at all times except when run. ning through the caging cycle.
3. About 5 minutes after starting engines,
throw caging switch to "CAGE" position.
Leave it there about 30 seconds and then
throw to "UNCAGE" again.
4. With the new push button-type caging
switch, depress it for a few seconds until a red
signal _light goes on. Then release the switch
and the caging cycle is automatically completed, at which time the red light goes out.
5. Set in the local variation on the master indicator if you wish the pointer to read true
heading.
6. If at any time during flight the compass
, indications lead you to suspect that the gyro is
off vertical, run through the caging cycle when
the airplane is in normal flight attitude, especially when leveling off after climb.
Note: For further details concerning functions, operation and flight instructions, see
Technical Order No. 05-15-27.
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RADIO
EQUIPMENT
Command Receiver Equipment
The receiver equipment consists of 3 individual
6-tube superheterodyne receivers BC 453-A,
BC 454-A, and BC 455-A, which cover the following frequency bands: (1) 3 to 6 Mc (30006000 Kc); (2) 190 to 550 Kc; (3) 6 to 9.1 Mc
( 6000-9100 Kc) .
Command receivers are generally operated
by the pilot for airplane-to-gr~und communication. The receiver control head unit BC 450-A
is loc.ated within easy reach of both the pilot
and copilot. In the upper left hand ·corner of
this control head unit there is a channel selector switch with positions "A" and "B." When
this switch is in position "A," the person can
hear the output of the receiver in any of the
interphone boxes or in any Tel A jack, but if
the channel selector switch is in position "B"
the output from that receiver can only be heard
by plugging the earphones into the Tel B jack
on the bottom of control head unit or on the
Tel B jack in receivers themselves.
Considerable care should be taken in the
antenna alignment of each individual receiver,
and the antenna alignment control on the
lower left hand corner of the receiver itself
should be adjusted for maximumsignalstrength
at the high-frequency end of the dial.
not require changing of coils. All equipment is
remotely controlled from the flight deck.
The 2 transmitters are the BC 457-A with a
range of from 3 to 5.3 Mc (3000-5300 Kc), and
the BC 458-A with a range of from 5.3 to 7 Mc.
The modulator unit BC 456-A and dynamotor
DM-33A supply the high-voltage DC and modulating power to either transmitter. The an...
tenna relay unit BC 442-A is used for switching
a single antenna between tl;ie receivers and
transmitters.
The peak power output of either transmitter
under optimum antenna loading conditions exceeds 40 watts for 28-volt input to the equip::ment ( although this condition is not likely to
be obtained in the airplane).
The transmitter is not crystal controlled, but
is a master oscillator type exciting a pair of
beam tetrode power amplifier tubes in parallel.
There are 3 controls on the front of the transmitter: 1. The · frequency knob in the lower
right corner marked "Frequency." When properly calibrated the frequency can be set within
3% of the indicated dial frequency; 2. The tuning inductance located in the upper right section marked "Ant. Inductance"; 3. The antenna
coupling control located in the middle left side
marked "Ant. Coupling."
Important: Transmitters must be tuned up
with the emission switch of the radio control
box 451-A in the "CW" position, and must not
be readjusted in any way after switching to
"VOICE" or "TONE."
Command Transmitter Equipment
Command transmitter equipment consists of 2
transmitters of set frequency ranges and does
176
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C. W. OSCILLATOR CONTROL SWITCH
CRYSTAL SWITCH
TELEPHONE JACKS
VOLUME CONTROL
C. W. OSCILLATOR BEAT FREQUENCY
CONTROL
BAND CHANGE SWITCH AND DIAL
ANTENNA
ALIGNMENT
CONTROL
TUNING CONTROL
LIAISON RADIO RECEIVER
Liaison Receiver
The liaison receiver consists of an 8-tube
superheterodyne communications receiver BC
348-C or BC348-H. The BC348-H has 7 frequency bands covering frequencies from 200
to 500 Kc and from 1.5 to 18 Mc. Be familiar
with the following controls on the receiver:
1. The antenna alignment knob should always be tuned for maximum background noise
in the headset.
2. The crystal switch on the "IN" position
cuts out interference · and increases selectivity
but decreases the sensitivity of the signal.
3. The CW oscillator switch is turned to
"ON" position for code signals and to "OFF"
position for voice reception.
4. MVC means that the receiver is in manual
volume control and that the signal will fade in
and out; whereas A VC means that the receiver
is in automatic volume control and that the
signal will not fade. MVC is used generally
for code and A VC for voice.
5. The beat frequency knob can be used on
CW reception as a trimmer and tone-variation
control. It has little effect on voice reception.
Most pilots are familiar with frequency in
terms of kilocycles but much of the aircraft
equipment is calibrated in terms of megacycles.
To change Mc to Kc, add three zeros to the
megacycle reading (3 Mc equals 3000 Kc).
The liaison receiver is the radio operator's
receiver used by him in conjunction with the
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liaison transmitter to carry on communication
from the airplane. The receiver cap be used to
calibrate t~e liaison transmitter in flight when
flight conditions prevent the use of the frequency meter.
Liaison Transmitter
The liaison transmitter equipment consists of
one medium-range transmitter, a dynamotor,
antenna, antenna variometer, and 7 tuning units
which lock into the bottom of the transmitter.
All of the equipment is under the control of the
radio operator, though the pilot and copilot
can operate the transmitter remotely through
their interphone switch boxes.
The transmitter is a master oscillator, power
amplifier type with a class B modulator. Since
it is not crystal-controlled, its frequency must
be carefully calibrated against some stable frequency measuring device such as the frequency
meter.
FREQUENCY METER
The frequency meters commonly used in large
bombers provide a means of accurately calibrating a transmitter or receiver on any given
frequency between 125 Kc and 20,000 Kc.
Most calibration charts on the front of aircraft transmitters cannot be relied upon to be
accurate because of vibration and many other
factors, and if the radio operator uses these
charts as his only means of setting · the fre177
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The pilot and copilot control the VHF equipment by means of the radio control box on the
right side of the pedestal. The set operates on
any one of 4 pre-set crystal controlled frequency channels between 100 and 156 Mc. Lineof-sight communication is normally necessary
for satisfactory operation. Assuming communication is taking place between an airplane and
a ground station over level country, approximate ranges are:
1000 feet .......... ~ . . . . . . . . . . 30 miles
5000 feet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 miles
10,000 feet ..................... 120 miles
20,000 feet ..................... 180 miles
Radio Control Box
FREQUENCY METER SET SCR-211-D
quency of the transmitters, often he will be
from 1 to 50 Kc off of his desired frequency.
The frequency meter is a crystal-controlled
precision instrument which can be relied upon
to be accurate within ½ of 1 Kc over its entire
frequency range; therefore the radio operator
should use the frequency meter with practically
every transmitter tuning. It is a 3-tube receivertransmitter combination which is capable of
receiving. a radio signal on a given frequency
and at the same time transmitting a signal on
that frequency.
The circuit employed in the frequency meter
consists of a self-excited heterodyne oscillator
and a crystal oscillator. The broad frequency
range is obtained by varying the self-excited
oscillator, and the frequency accuracy is obtained by beating the self-excited oscillator
against the highly accurate crystal oscillator.
Its power source consists of self-contained A
and B batteries.
The radio control box provides the only complete remote control of communication functions. Five re.9- buttons are the means by which
any one of the 4 channels is selected and the
power turned off. Pressing the "OFF" button
turns off the dynamotor. The buttons are interconnected so that not more than one channel
can be selected at a time. A light opposite each
button indicates which channel you are using.
The "T-R-REM" switch (transmit.:.receive-remote) is normally in the "REM" position, permitting press-to-talk operation with the microphone switch on the control wheel, which when
depressed switches the equipment from receive
VHF EQUIPMENT
The SCR 522 VHF ( very high frequency)
transmitterJreceiver provides 2-way communication between aircraft and ground stations.
Provision is made for voice communication and
continuous audio tone modulation.
178
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to transmit. In the "T" position the transmitter
is in continuous operation. In the "R" position
the receiver is in continuous operation.
The lever tab directly above the "T-R-REM"
switch, when lowered, blocks the switch from
"REM'' position and spring-loads the switch
lever so that unless it is held in the "T" position
it will return to "R."
The small lever tab opposite the "OFF" button is a dimmer mask to reduce the lamp glare.
The lamp opposite the "T-R-REM" switch is on
when receiving and off when transmitting.
Transmitter-R«:ceiver Assembly
The transmitter and receiver units are in a
single case. The transmitter employs a crystalcontrolled oscillator circuit and operates in the
frequency range of 100-156 Mc on any of the 4
pre-set channels, A, B, C, or D. Average output
power of the transmitter is 8 to 9 watts, using a
total power input of 11.5 amps at 28 volts.
The receiver is a sensitive superheterodyne
unit employing a heterodyne oscillator whose
frequency is controlled by any one of 4 quartz
crystals. Thus the 4 crystal-controlled channel
frequencies are available for instantaneous selection at the remote control position. For reception the total input current is 11.1 amps at
28 volts.
Dynamotor Unit
The dynamotor operates on the 28-volt power
circuit and supplies 3 regulated voltage sources
R E S.T R I C T E D
(300-volt DC, 150-volt DC, and 13-volt DC)
required for operation of the VHF assembly.
Operation
The "T" and "R" positions of the control box
permit transmission and reception without the
use of the press-to-talk button. However, some
aircraft are modified to eliminate the "T" and
"R" positions, or have the control safetied in the
"REM" position. It is advisable to use the
"REM" position at all times.
To operate: See that the switch is in the
"REM" position (if not safetied there).
Select a channel by pressing button A, B, C,
orD.
To receive: Under these conditions the receiver is normally in continuous operation.
To transmit, depress the press-to-talk button
and talk into the mecrophone.
To receive again, release the press-to-talk
button.
To shut off the equipment, press the "OFF"
button.
Precautions During Operation
I
A void prolonged use of the radio on the ground
to conserve the batteries and avoid overheating
the dynamotor.
If the transmitter and receiver fail to operate
when a channel button is pressed, press another channel button, then again press the button for the desired channel. Transmission and
reception should then be possible.
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LOCATION OF RADIO EQUIPMENT
;,
Liaison transmitter
On flight deck under the radio operator's table
Liaison receiver
On flight deck on top of radio operator's table
•
Liaison dynamotor
Under flight deck on right side (sometimes .on
floor of flight deck)
Liaison iunction box
On flight deck behind transmitter
Liaison monitor normal switch
•
lnterphone amplifier
Behind copilot's seat
lnterphone iunction boxes
.
13 positions throughout the ship
lnterphone dynamotor
Command transmitters
On right side of liaison transmitter
.
Right forward side of half deck
Command receiver remote control head
Roof of flight deck between pilot and copilot
Command receivers •
Center forward section of half deck
Command modulator power unit
Right side of half deck
•
Command antenna relay
Above the command transmitters
VHF transmitter-receiver and dynamotor .
Right side of half deck
VHF remote control unit
Right side of control pedestal
Compass receiver
Right side of half deck, facing center of ship
Compass control head (navigator's)
In nose of ship above the navigator's table
Compass control head (pilot's)
On flight deck above the pilot's head
Compass panel
On aft side of compass receiver
Compass loop antenna .
180
To right of liaison receiver
•
T~p side of fuselage near bulkhead No. 6
Compass whip (sense) antenna
Top side of fuselage forward of loop antenna
Marker beacon receiver
In bomb bay on left side of bulkhead No. 5
Marker beacon antenna
Under catwalk on bottom center of ship
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INTERPHONE EQUIPMENT
The interphone amplifier consists of a single
dual-purpose tube amplifier powerful enough
to allow adequate communication between all
members of the airplane crew.
FILTER SWITCH BOX AND INTERPHONE CONTROi.
The individual 13 interphone station boxes
are located in these positions in late B-24's:
1. Tail gun position.
2. Camera hole position.
3. Side gun position (right side).
4. Side gun position (left side).
5. Bottom turret gun position.
6. Bomb bay.
7. Top gun position.
8. Radio operator's position.
9. Pilot's position.
10. Copilot's position.
11. Navigator's position.
12. Bombardier's position.
13. Nose gunner's position.
Steps for operating the interphone system:
1. The interphone system turns on when the
. main line and battery switches are turned on.
2. Plug your earphones in the phone jack at
bottom of station box or in its extension cord.
3. Turn the selector switch A to "COMP"
and you hear the compass receiver if it is on.
4. Turn the selector switch A to the "LIAISON" position and you hear the radio operator's liaison receiver if it is on. Press the microphone and you transmit over the liaison trans-
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mitter. (Only the pilot, copilot, radio operator's
and navigator's interphone boxes will operate
the liaison transmitter.)
5. Turn the selector switch A to the "COMMAND" position and you hear the command
receiver. Press the microphone button and you
transmit over the command transmitter (from
any position) .
6. Turn the selector switch A to "INTER"
and press the microphone button and you talk
to any person in the ship who has his box on
"INTER" position.
7. Turn the selector switch A to "CALL"
position and manually hold it there while you
call any interphone position in the ship. The
person talking on "CALL" position will be
heard throughout the ship no matter what position the other interphone boxes are turned to.
Filter System
Pilot and copilot are provided with the FL-SA
filter and switch box assembly. The filter is
used for separating the voice (weather reports,
etc.) from the beacon signal. Switching selector
B to "RANGE" permits the reception of the
beacon signal only. "VOICE" position permits
reception of spoken messages only and "BOTH"
permits beacon signal and spoken messages to
be heard simultaneously.
Trouble Shooting Steps for the
8-24 Radio Equipment:
1. Check all the switches to see that the
equipment is properly turned on.
2. Check all fuses in defective circuit.
3. Note whether there is input to the equipment by checking to see that the tubes in the
equipment are lighted.
4. Tap radio tubes (in a defective circuit)
and push them firmly in their sockets.
5. Remove the cover cap over each cable
plug which connects into the defctive circuit
and check soldering connection on each wire.
6. Check the bonding from the defective
equipment to the body of the ship.
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LOCATION OF RADIO FUSES
LIAISON TRANSMITTER FUSE-Pull out sliding coil in liaison transmitter.
Fuse is in center section above where sliding coil unit goes in.
Value is .SA 1000V. (Two spares are located on rack at base
of coil unit.)
LIAISON RECEIVER FUSE-Unscrew two posts on the middle sides of receiver and pull the receiver from its case. Fuse is in bottom
center of receiver. Value is 15A.
LIAISON DYNAMOTOR FUSE-Release 4 locks on dynamotor top casing and
pull casing upward from dynamotor. Fuses are 1A 1000V,
60A-250V, and 30A-250V. (Dynamotor spare fuses are located in top of the dynamotor lid.)
COMMAND TRANSMITTER AND COMMAND DYNAMOTOR FUSES-Located
above the bomb bay, betwe~n bulkheads Nos. 5 and 6, in the
modulator power unit on the starboard side. Values are 20A
each. (Two spares are located in the fuse cup on the port
side of the modulator power unit~)
COMMAND RECEIVER FUSES-located in fuse cup behind each receiver.
Value is 10A. (One spare is located next to it.)
COMPASS RECEIVER FUSES-Located in compass panel which is on aft side
of compass receiver. Values are 2A and 15A. (One spare is
located next to each.) AC inverter power has to be on before
compass receiver will work. AC power radio fuse will be
found on flight deck in copilot's fuse box.
VHF FUSES-Located on right wall of half deck, behind transmitter-receiver
unit.
MARKER BEACON RECEIVER FUSE-Run on power from compass receiver;
uses compass fuses.
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RADIO COMPASS
SCR-269
This radio equipment enables a pilot to obtain
the following three conditions:
1. Aural reception of non-directional radio
signals using a whip antenna. This condition is
obtained on the "ANT" position of the pilot's
remote control head.
2. Aural reception of radio signals using a
shielded loop antenna. The loop antenna picks
up considerably less snow and rain static but
the volume is slightly less than that on "ANT"
position. This condition is obtained on "LOOP"
position of the pilot's remote control head.
3. Aural reception of radio signals using both
the whip and loop antenna with a pointer to
indicate the bearing of the station from the
airplane. This condition is obtained on the
"COMP" position of the pilot's remote control
head.
When the radio compass is used as a homing
device, the indications are such that the aircraft will ultimately arrive over the radio station antenna regardless of the probable drift
due to crosswind. However, the flight path will
be a curved line, and coordination with ground
fixes or landing fields along the route will be
either difficult or impossible. Consequently, it
is often expedient to fly a straight-line course
by offsetting the aircraft's heading to compensate for wind drift. To do this, determine the
wind drift, either with a drift sight or by noting
the change in magnetic compass reading over
a period of time, and making allowances for
drift.
The radio compass operates on AC power and
will not work if there is inverter failure.
How to Operate the Radio Compass
To assume control at either pilot's or navigator's station, turn selector switch on radio
Radio Compass
Controls
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compass control box to type ot operation desired and press "CONTROL" button until green
indicator lamp on control box lights. (Adjust
dial lamps with "LIGHTS" control and headset volume with "AUDIO" control.)
Select station frequency with band selector
switch and tuning crank. Move tuning crank
to position producing .greatest clockwise indication of tuning meter.
Note: Provision is made for reception of CW
signals. Control of this feature is provided by
the "CW-VOICE" switch on the panel of the
radio compass receiver, located over the rear
bomb bay.
1. To operate as a receiver only, using the
vertical sense antenna:
a. Set selector switch on "ANT."
b. Push "CONTROL" button if indicator
lamp does not indicate position control.
c. Set band selector switch to desired band
and tune in desired stations by means of
tuning crank, making final adjustment by
referring to tuning meter.
d. Regulate headset volume by adjusting
"AUDIO" control.
Note: If reception on "ANT" is noisy, operate
on shielded loop antenna. Precipitation static
existing in air-mass fronts at different temperatures can sometimes be avoided by crossing
the front at right angles, and then proceeding
on the desired course, instead of flying along
the air-mass front.
e. To turn off radio compass, turn selector
switch on radio compass control box to
"OFF."
2. To operate as a receiver only, utilizing
the shielding provision of the loop antenna to
reduce precipitation static noises:
a. Set selector switch on "LOOP."
b. Push "CONTROL" button if indicator
lamp does not indicate position control.
c. Tune in desired station.
d. Depress "LOOP L-R" knob, on radio
compass control box and turn it to "L" or
"R," rotating loop to obtain maximum signal
strength, as indicated by headset volume.
Release "LOOP L-R" knob and make final
adjustment of loop position at slow speed by
turning the knob to ''L" or "R." Changing
184
course will affect signal strength, and necessitate readjustment of loop position.
e. Regulate headset volume with "AUDIO"
knob.
Note: If loop is in null (minimum signal)
position when flying on a radio range course,
the signal may fade in and out, and possibly
be mistaken for a cone of silence. When operating on "LOOP," cone-of-silence indications
from radio range stations employing loop-type
radiators (shown on radio facility chart) are
not reliable. The signal may increase in volume
to a strong surge when directly over the station, instead of indicating a silent zone.
f. To turn off radio compass, turn selector
switch on radio compass control box "OFF."
3. To operate as an aural null homing device,
utilizing the directional characteristics of the
loop antenna:
a. Set selector switch on "LOOP."
b. Push "CONTROL" button if indicator
lamp does not indicate position control.
c. Tune in desired (preferably clear channel) station.
d. If loop indicator pointer is not at zero,
depress "LOOP L-R" knob and turn it to
the "L" or the "R" position until the pointer
rests on zero. Final adjustment of loop position can be made at slow speed by releasing
"LOOP L-R" knob and turning it to "L" or
"R."
e. Turn "AUDIO" control fully clockwise
and head airplane in proper direction, based
upon the null indicated in the headset. (The
broadness of the null depends on the strength
of the signal. Strong signals produce very
sharp nulls, sometimes as small as one-tenth
of a degree.) Vary "AUDIO" control until
the null is of satisfactory width. The tuning
meter may be used as a visual null indicator.
Note: When determining direction of flight
by this method, remember that the airplane
may be flying either directly toward or directly
away from the station. If direction of flight with
regard to this ambiguity is not known and
radio compass won't work on · "COMP," a
standard orientation procedure must be executed before flying any great distance along the
nua
.
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f. To turn off radio compass, turn the selector switch' on radio compass control box to
"OFF" position.
4. To operate as a homing compass, utilizing
the unidirectional characteristics of the radio
compass when operating with the vertical and
loop antenna:
a. Set selector switch on "COMP."
b. Push "CONTROL" button if the control
indicator lamp does not indicate position
control.
c. Tune in desired station.
d. Apply rudder in direction shown by radio compass indicator until pointer centers
on zero. This indication is unidirectional; as
long as pointer rests on zero, the airplane is
headed toward the transmitting antenna of
the radio station.
The airplane's flight path toward the antenna
may be a curved line unless its direction is offset to compensate for wind drift, as determined
by the drift sight or by noting the change in
magnetic compass reading while homing on the
radio compass.
e. Regulate headset volume by adjusting
"AUDIO" control.
f. Since a pronounced A VC action may be
present when operating the radio compass
on "COMP," aural indications received on
this position should not be used when homing
on a radio range station.
g. To turn off radio compass, turn selector
switch on control box to "OFF."
IMPORTANT
There are many uses of the radio compass which are invaluable to the airplane
commander. An excellent description of its uses will be found in T. 0. 30-100B-1,
Instrument Flying Advanced With Radio Aids.
MARKER BEACON
RECEIVER
The marker beacon receiver picks up 75 Mc
signals used in radio navigation and landings
and reproduces them visually through a light
on the instrument panel. When the airplane is
over a keyed transmitter, such as a CAA
marker, or certain types of Army transmitters,
the indicator lamp on the panel flashes the
identifying signal of the transmitter. The receiver unit is installed in the bomb bay.
The receiver operates automatically on power
drawn from the radio compass; hence, for
marker beacon reception, your radio compass
must be on and operating.
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185
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OPERATING ON
LESS THAN
4 ENGINES
The first and most important rule when an engine fails is to take it easy. Don't get excited
and don't act thoughtlessly; a confused mind is
a greater hazard than a dead engine. In general,
under normal conditions, failure of an engine
calls for the following procedure:
1. Get the airplane under control.
2. Throttle back the dead engine, watching
instruments for any indication of the cause of
failure.
3. Adjust power on the live engines.
4. Feather the prop on the dead engine.
5. Try to find out what caused the engine to
tail.
In getting the airplane under control, use all
the rudder necessary, calling on the copilot for
help if y~:m need it. Keep aileron pressure to an
absolute minimum.
If full rudder isn't enough to hold direction
and keep the wings level, your power adjustment will help out. Increase power slightly on
the dead-engine side and reduce power slightly
on the opposite outboard. Center the ball and
don't let the dead-engine wing drop; refer to the
flight indicator. Don't be afraid to use more
power from the good engines if you need it, but
186
don't use more than you can control or exceed
maximum power settings for the fuel you are
using. Use extra power only as long as yotJ
need it.
Be satisfied as long as you can:
a. Hold the airplane level on a heading;
b. Maintain airspeed of 150 mph with no
flaps or 145 mph with 10° of flaps under
normal load;
c. Maintain altitude.
When you achieve these conditions, trim to
maintain them. Don't try to get control with
trim tabs. Introduce the required amount of
· rudder, balance trim with power, hold it, and
relieve strain with tabs.
Note: Full rudder -trim red~ces airspeed 15 to
20 mph. Don't use it when you require maximum performance-near the ground, for example.
When you feather, make sure you have the
correct engine. Your chief reasons for feathering are to stop violent vibration if it exists, or
to reduce drag if you are getting no power
from the engine. You won't achieve either of
these things if you feather the wrong prop;
but you will make things worse.
Having done all this. as quickly as possible
without confusion, start hunting for the trouble.
It is possible that the same cause may cost you
another engine if not corrected, as in the case
of overheating from excessive manifold pressure, improper use of cowl flaps or intercooler
shutters, improper fuel procedure, icing, faulty
carburetion, faulty lubrication, or ignition trouble. Have the copilot check engine instruments,
main line and ignition switches. Have the engineer check fuel supply, fuel gages, and valve
settings.
If you can't remedy the trouble, observe one
final precaution: Fly the airplane as smoothly as
possible, and avoid all but gentle maneuvers.
You have unsymmetrical thrust and reduced
total horsepower. Increase your airspeed immediately if looseness of controls or shudde~ing
indicates an approach to a stall. Plan all your
turns into the live engines.
·
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�WHAT YOU .LOSE WHEN YOU LOSE AN ENGINE
No. 3 Dead-You lose generator, heaters for
bombardier, navigator and radio operator and
you lose the engine-driven hydraulic pump. This
affects flaps, gear, brake accumulators and bomb
doors .
No. 1 Dead-You lose generator and vacuum
pump which affects all gyro instruments and deicer boots. Switch vacuum to No. 2 to restore
suction for gyros and for de-icer boot operation. ·
•
•
0
No. 2 Dead-Yo~ lose generator, heaters (for
pilot, copilot and top turret gunner) and vacuum
pump. Switch vacuum to No. 1.
No. 4 Dead-You lose generator affecting electri_cal system.
NOTE: GYROS SPILL WITHIN 3 TO 5 MINUTES WITHOUT SUCTION.
ENGINE FAILURE
ON TAKEOFF
or dangerous instrument indications, don't be
in a hurry to feather. (See Feathering.) Feather
only when you know you have located the failing engine.
The value of an engine-failure procedure is the
fact that it prepares a pilot in advance for emergencies. It gives you a plan of action that will
help you to do the right thing at the right time,
smoothly and efficiently.
Procedure
1. If there is room enough, the best thing
is to throttle back and stop the take off.
2. If it is too late to stop (as is usually the
case), use all available runway to build up flying speed.
3. As long as yaw is less than that of a windmilling propeller, without excessive vibration
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4. Get and keep control with rudder and minimum aileron. Insufficient rudder and too much
aileron will put you in a forward slip and you
187
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will_be unable to gain airspeed or altitude. Use
as much power as you need to clear obstructions, but no more than you can fully control.
When you have good control and a safe altitude,
trim rudder to relieve yaw, level the wings and
center the ball to get maximum flying efficiency.
Provided airplane was properly trimmed beforehand, you will not need aileron trim.
5. Hold the nose at the minimum angle of
climb necessary to clear obstructions. You want
to gain airspeed as fast as possible.
6. Start the gear up as soon as you are safely
clear of the ground. Hold your minimum angle
of climb until the gear is up and gear handle has
kicked out.
7. When you have airspeed of 135 to 140 mph
raise the flaps in two to three stages to 5° to 9°.
(Airplane has most lift and stability with this
flap setting.) Raise the nose enough to maintain
climb and still build up airspeed.
8. Above all, don't attempt any turns while
climbing. Climb to a safe altitude and airspeed
and get up on the step before starting a turn.
9. Request emergency landing clearance
from the tower, preferably with a pattern that
will permit you to make turns with the live
engines on the inside of the turn. A void any
violent maneuvers. Make shallow turns and remember that you'll have a longer radius of turn
because of unbalanced power.
Failure of Engine No. 1
If No. 1 fails and you are using maximum takeoff power, it will require all available rudder
to hold the airplane straight because of yaw
plus torque. If vacuum selector is on No. 1,
switch to No. 2 so gyro instruments won't spill.
Failure of No. 2 Engine
Less rudder will be necessary to hold airplane
straight and to level wings if No. 2 or No. 3
fails. Switch vacuum (if on No. 2) to No. 1.
Failure of Engine No. 3
You should be able to raise the wheels without
using the auxiliary hydraulic pump if the engine is delivering any power at all or even if it
is windmilling.
If you have feathered the propeller, the en188
gine-driven hydraulic pump will not operate.
Then, have engineer turn on the auxiliary hydraulic pump switch and open the star valve to
get the gear and flaps up. Then turn the start
valve off until needed to get the gear and flaps
down.
Second Engine Failure on Takeoff
(This shouldn't happen to a dog)
Even if 2 engines should fail on the same side
it is usually possible to fly the airplane with a
normal load. The object is the same as in singleengine failure: to keep the ball centered to get
maximum lift. This will take every inch of
available rudder that pilot and copilot can hold.
One method is to pull war emergency power
with the live inboard and retard the outboard
to maximum climbing power. Use all the horsepower you can get and control, but it is no good
to you unless you can hold the airplane in a
maximum-lift attitude, wings level.
Jettison as much load as possible. Proceed
as in a single-engine failure. As soon as you
have gear and flaps up, and a safe airspeed, you
can probably maintain a shallow climb with
less power. Do yom; climbing straight ahead.
If 2 . engines fail on opposite sides, you .will
have no serious problem maintaining direction
and can use more balanced power settings.
Caution: Under no condition try to turn back
to the field. If the airplane is sinking too much,
execute a landing straight ahead. Warn the
crew in advance and carry out the procedure
for crash-landing on land as far as time permits.
Remember: Don't slack off on rudder and use
ailerons. You are better off with a little less
power and an efficient flying attitude. Wait until after you have gained control to trim. Don't
attempt to get control with trim.
Don't try to turn back to the field.
Use all your strength on rudder and then
use as much power as you can hold. Center the
ball if you want the airplane to fly.
After flaps are at 5° to 9°, never let the airspeed get below 145 mph even if you have to
sacrifice altitude.
Smooth application of controls is vital. Use
gradual, steady pressures. Nurse 'er, brother,
nurse 'er and she'll fly!
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ENGINE FAILURE IN LEVEL FLIGHT
The same principles apply here as in other situations when an engine is losing power. However, you have more time in which to regain
control of the airplane, your wheels and flaps
are up, and it is seldom necessary to use excessive power for any extended period.
There is nothing critical about an engine failure in the B-24. If you know how to get the
airplane under control, how to use power and
when and when not to feather, you can bring
'em back alive from a long way out. Combat
pilots are doing it all the time. Sincere concentration and a desire to learn in ground school,
on the flight line, and in the air, and thoughtful
study of the airplane and technical orders, will
rapidly prepare you. to meet any situation.
Know everything this manual has to tell you
and you'll feel secure in most situations. ·
POWER SETTINGS FOR
3-ENGINE CRUISING
Normally, with one engine dead, maximum
cruise power settings will easily maintain level
flight. When the engine first fails, you may
want to use maximum climbing power and, in
combat, danger from the enemy or maintaining
position in formation will govern your actions.
But don't pour the power on unreasonably.
Second and third engine failures too often are
induced by using power improperly. Handle
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your power with kid gloves to avoid failures.
Refer to the 3-Engine Cruise Control Chart •
for power settings, airspeed and fuel consumption.
Inboard or Outboard Failure
For cruising purposes, it makes little difference whether an inboard or an outboard engine
fails. An outboard will require a little more
rudder pressure to regain control, especially
if No. 1 fails. Remember, if No. 1 or No. 2 fails,
.to switch vacuums at once. You need your
gyro instruments to fly a B-24, especially with
an unbalanced power condition or if you are
on instruments.
Failure of No. 1 or No. 2
When De-icers Are Working
When cruising in icing conditions with de-icers
working, failure of No. 1 or No. 2 cuts off half
of the pressure to de-icers. When you switch
vacuum to the live engine, there is full pressure for inflating de-icers but there is no vacuum for deflation and you have to depend on
external air pressure for deflating boots. You
can divert all the suction to deflating by switching vacuum to the dead engine for 30 seconds
periodically and then back to the live engine
to maintain proper suction for gyro instruments. You'll only need to do this under severe
icing conditions. It takes 45 seconds for the
complete cycle of inflation and deflation of deicer boots.
Failure of 2 Engines in Flight
If 2 engines fail, it is possible to fly the airplane
in all gentle maneuvers within engine power
limits. Normally, "AUTO-RICH," 2300 rpm and
34" manifold pressure will suffice. Don't forget
the sequence for increasing power.
Based on 50,000-lb. weight, 5000 feet density
altitude and 1200 gallons of fuel available, this
power setting will maintain level flight at 152
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mph indicated (164 true airspeed), and will
give a maximum range of 970 miles with no
wind. Under the same conditions except cruising at 10,000 feet your airspeed would be 143
mph indicated, 167 mph true airspeed, and
range would increase to 1030 miles. You could
not maintain altitude at 15,000 feet with 2 engines dead, and would want to descend to
10,000 feet.
If 2 engines are out on one side, you may
have to increase power with a resultant sacrifice in range. In this case, your immediate
problem will be to regain directional control
and keep the dead-engine wing from dropping
below level flight. This will call for all possible
rudder pressure and maximum smoothness in
flying. Get control, ·center the ball, hold and
trim. If you can't trim out all the yaw, slightly
increase rpm and power on the live inboard
and decrease power and rpm on the live outboard to assist in trimming. ·You will still have
to hold some rudder. Remember that you probably can't maintain altitude with both landing
gear and flaps down. (See 2-Engine Landing.)
Caution: If you continue to lose altitude
with 2 engines dead there are several choices.
First try 5° to 9° of flaps. This will usually reduce descent 200 to 300 feet a minute. Then
jettison all possible cargo. You should be able
to maintain altitude with 5° to 9° of flaps and
· 145 mph. If still losing altitude at 2000 feet
above the terrain, bail out the crew.
Concealed Engine Failure
During cruising flight it is not always apparent
that an ·engine is failing. Yaw may be slight
if the guilty engine is an inboard and if the
turbo-supercharger is not operating. A windmilling propeller can maintain engine readings
on the tachometer, oil pressure, and manifold
pressure dials within operating limits, concealing the failure.
Assume throttles are open, turbo-superchargers are operating and an engine fails.
Manifold pressure for that engine will immediately drop to approximately atmospheric pressure for the altitude which you are flying. However, if turbo-superchargers are not engaged,
manifold pressure would show no substantial
drop when an engine fails.
190
Fuel pressure will remain normal in a regularly functioning fuel system. Low temperature
readings of cylinder-head temperature and oil
temperature gages may be the only symptoms
of such a failure. Cylinder-head temperatures
are the first to react and should be closely observed. If you are inexplicably losing airspeed
and or altitude, you may be experiencing such
a failure.
On automatic pilot, controls will suddenly get
· busy and tend to cross, and airspeed will fall
off, in addition to engine indications.
Turns With Dead Engines
Warning: Never attempt turns unnecessarily
while climbing with one or more engines dead.
1. Be sure the airplane is under control and
trimmed, and, if necessary, power balanced.
Then, with one engine dead, or an engine dead
on each side, even though one is an outboard
and the other an inboard, you won't have
trouble controlling the airplane in the turn if
you keep banks shallow and maintain airspeed.
2. Plan ahead so you have a world of room
in which to make the turn and so you will turn
into the live engines.
3. Use shallow banks, not to exceed standard
rate one-needle-width turns.
4. Use smooth but strong application of rudder. The airplane will resist the turn because
you are turning against power and will require
a larger radius in which to complete the turn.
5. Use a minimum of aileron to effect the
turn. Excessive use of ailerons creates excessive
drag, and can produce an aileron stall without
. warning. A violent aileron stall can turn the
airplane on its back.
A Turn Into a Dead Engine
Normally it is not necessary to make a turn into
a dead engine. About the only case would be
if an engine failed on the side toward the field
on the base leg. If that should happen, it would
probably be better to turn into the dead engine
to line up on final approach than to turn
through 270° in the opposite direction. You can
make a shallow turn into a dead engine safely,
provided the airplane is flown in a coordinated
manner ( center the ball). Remember not to
allow the nose to get up, and maintain 145 mph
with 5° to 9° of flaps.
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�RES·TRICTED
ENGINE FAILURE
IN TRAFFIC
It is one thing to approach traffic with altitude
to spare, dead engine feathered, gear up and
time to plan. It is a somewhat different problem
to be flying in traffic and have an engine fail.
Assume that you have just started on the down- .
wind leg, wheels down, and have started the
checklist and an engine fails-then what?
Your first step is to get complete control of
the airplane, increasing power if needed, mixtures to "AUTO-RICH," props to 2550, power
to give full control. If there is violent vibration,
feather as soon as you can be sure which engine
is at fault. At the earliest possible moment
notify the tower to clear traffic-y.ou don't want
to have to go around if it can be avoided.
Immediately order gear up to reduce drag. If
No. 3 has failed, have the engineer switch on
the auxiliary hydraulic pump and open the
star valve to bring the gear up. Gear will come
up in 30 to 40 seconds. After gear is up and
flaps are at 5° to 9°, turn off the switch but
leave the star valve open ready to bring the
gear and flaps down when you again start pump
on final approach. Now complete the checklist.
From there on, use the same procedure as in
other dead-engine landings, keeping your base
leg close in and lowering gear on final approach
when you know you can make the field, lowering flaps when the gear handle has kicked out,
etc. (Gear will come down and lock in approximately 25 seconds.)
If the failure occurs close enough to the field
so that your position and altitude permit a normal landing, don't raise the gear. Use enough
power to bring you safely into final approach.
LANDING WITH ONE OR MORE
ENGINES DEAD
Pilots with average ability can safely land the
B-24 with one or 2 engines dead if they plan
ahead properly and follow correct procedures.
Approaching Traffic
It is most important that you notify the tower
well in advance that you have a dead engine
and want to make an emergency landing. Request a traffic pattern which will keep the dead
engine high on all turns. The tower should get
other ships out of the pattern and give you the
right of way.
Procedure for 3-Engine Landing
1. Approach traffic and fly the traffic pattern
500 feet higher than normal at an airspeed of
150 mph.
2. Otherwise place and fly the downwind leg
in the normal manner, except keep the gear up
until final approach. On the downwind leg comREST RIC TED
plete other items of the checklist as usual, including 5° to 9° of flaps to stabilize and improve
the lift characteristics of the airplane.
3. Shorten the distance you fly out on the
last part of the downwind leg in order to keep
your base leg in closer so that there will be less
danger of undershooting on final approach.
4. Start your turn substantially earlier, because against power the radius of turn will be
greater. Uon't get the nose up and do maintain
airspeed in the turn at 150 mph if you have to
lose a little altitude to do so.
5. Again start your turn earlier than usual
from base leg into final approach. If necessary,
retard the throttle slightly on the outboard
nearest the field to help turn. Start the finalapproach checklist in the turn. Procedure is the
same as usual except for gear and flaps.
6. Roll out of the turn with rudder and line
up for final approach. Judge your distance carefully and be sure you can make the field before
ordering the gear down. Maintain 140 mph until
gear is down and locked. Engineer won't be
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able to check the main gear locked because you
have 5° to 9° of flaps, but he can and must
check the nose gear.
7. As soon as the gear handle kicks out ( and
not before) and when you are sure you can
make the field, call for full flaps. This noticeably
increases lift and tends to lengthen your glide,
so as flaps come down, reduce airspeed to 125
mph by reducing power. It is a good idea to use
5 to 10 mph higher airspeed than this on final
approach if the length of runway permits.
8. As airspeed drops and you reduce power,
re-trim to normal tab settings because you no ·
longer have an unbalanced power condition.
9. From then on it is a normal landing. Keep
on enough power to control your rate of descent.
Power reduction on final approach will vary depending upon which engine is out. With a dead
outboard, you would throttle back the active
outboard ( as flaps come down) to about 12"
manifold pressure to give a normal tab setting.
Keep sink to a minimum with the inboard engines. Once you have a high rate of sink, it is
hard to stop because of inertia. With a dead
inboard, reduce the active inboard first and
land with the outboards. As you make contact,
close the 3 throttles together. Note: If No. 3
engine is dead, have the engineer switch on the
auxiliary hydraulic pump and open the star
valve when you want to bring flaps and gear
down. After they are down on final approach
have the star valve closed, but leave the switch
on so the auxiliary hydraulic pump will charge
accumulators.
Landing With 2 Engines Dead
In general the procedure is identical with that
of a 3-engine landing with these exceptions:
1. Approach and fly traffic 1000 feet higher
than normal.
2. Maintain a slight descent throughout the
pattern to maintain airspeed, and fly turns with
the greatest care to lose minimum amount of
altitude. Don't let the airspeed drop below 145
mph with 5° to 9° of flaps.
3. You should enter the turn on final approach about 500 feet higher than normal.
One engine dead on each side: Power can be
easily balanced even though one is an outboard
and the other an inboard.
Two engines dead on the same side: This is
your most unbalanced power condition. Except
more difficult turns in which it may be necessary to reduce power on the active outboard.
On final approach gradually reduce power first
on the active outboard and re-trim; control rate
of desc~nt .with the inboard engine.
GEAR DOWN
-- ----------'
\
,-
\
.
~
-----
---
500 FEET
NORMAL
FLIGHT PATH
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3•ENGINE GO-AROUND
This won't happen to you if you have been living a good clean life. You are on final approach
with a dead engine, gear down, full flaps down
and gliding at 125 mph when the tower orders
you to go around. The sequence of operations
is most important.
Procedure
1. Lead with balanced power. If an inboard is
dead, lead with the outboard throttles. If an
outboard is dead, lead with the inboards and
follow gradually with the ~nbalancing throttle
to avoid getting power on that you can't hold
with rudders until your speed increases.
2. As always with a dead engine, the important things are a shallow climb and level wings
to gain airspeed as rapidly as possible.
3. Get at least 125 mph before you call for
flaps to 20 °. As the flaps come up, slightly increase the angle of attack enough to avoid sink.
Airspeed should immediately build up to 135
to 140 mph.
4. Important: Here's where sequence is important. Raise the flaps . ahead of the gear, because it takes 30 seconds for the gear to come
up and during that time you would have the ·
drag of full flaps. When you have brought the
flap handle to neutral, order the gear up.
5. With this procedure, you should have no
trouble controlling enough power to gain adequate airspeed for climbing. As soon as you
have 135 to 140 mph and a safe altitude raise
flaps to 5° to 9° and keep this setting for maximum flying efficiency.
If you are about to overshoot on final ap..:.
proach, don't dissipate altitude with a nose-high
attitude. Reduce power and dive. This requires
good technique, and you must start your flareout slightly higher than normal.
AC POWER OR INVERTER FAILURE
If you feel that instruments are indicating with
an uncanny steadiness, don't reach for a
feathering button. There is probably inverter
or AC power failure. Inverters change direct
current from the batteries to alternating current to operate autosyn instruments and other
units. There may be a fuse blown, inverter
trouble, or an inverter fuse blown. You know
there is nothing radically wrong with the airplane because there is no yaw, no vibration,
and you are maintaining your airspeed, so don't
feather. It is very unlikely that all 4 engines
will fail at once. Cylinder-head and oil temperatures are still indicating normally.
Test for Inverter Failure: Turn the booster
pumps on or off and observe the action of the
fuel pressure gage. A variation in pressure indicates that the inverters are functioning. An alternative check is to watch the operation of the
remote-indicating compass or the radio compass.
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Effect of AC Power or Inverter Failure
1. Autosyn instruments ( electrically operated) will tevd to stay put or creep slowly
down. On many airplanes this includes the
tachometers, manifold ·p ressure gages, fuel
pressure gages and oil pressure gages. However, instruments controlled by AC power may
. vary on later models.
2. Other instruments will continue to register
normally.
· 3. Radio compass will fail to function since it
is on AC power:
4. At night:
a. Magnetic compass lights will go out.
b. Tube-type fluorescents will go out.
5. A-5 automatic pilot will cease to function.
6. Electronic supercharger, if so equipped,
will lock waste gates in the position they are in
when inverter fails. This gives no cause for
immediate alarm but must be considered in
changes of altitude and power settings. '
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Remedy:
landing
Switch to the other inverter; if this fails, ·check
all fuses concerned. These measures will usually restore your AC power. That's why you
have extra fuses and 2 inverters but normally
use only one-so that you'll have a spare inverter if needed.
Warning: If you have had inverter failure
with an electronic supercharger control, keep
your hand on the throttles when you switch inverters and control any manifold pressure fluctuations for at least 2 minutes to allow the amplifier to warm up. If circumstances permit,
reduce power during this period.
You can make a normal landing without difficulty if AC power fails. Judge power settings
by eye, ear, and flight instruments.
Automatic Change-over
On some late series aircraft an automatic
change-over relay switches to the spare inverter if the main one fails. A red light on the
instrument panel flashes on to warn you that
the main inverter is dead. The relay will not
switch from spare to main, so always operate
on the main inverter.
Flight Procedures in Case of Complete Failure
The most important thing is to keep your head:
1. Don't feather. Don't change power. Keep
the airplane flying straight and level!
2. Fly the airplane by means of the altimeter,
flight indicator, rate-of-climb indicator and
your airspeed indicator.
3. You know the power setting you were
using. Mark the throttle quadrant so you won't
be tempted to shove on excessive power. Remember your airspeed indicator (in level
flight) is a direct guide to the power you are
getting.
4. If necessary to descend from high altitude,
reduce power, and establish a nominal rate of
descent. When you level off, judge increase in
power by airspeed and re-establish power to
give you the same indicated airspeed as higher
up.
5. In case of a descent when equipped .with
electronic supercharger, your power reduction
will have to be made entirely with throttles.
6. It is a good idea to land at the nearest suitable airfield.
194
RUNAWAY
PROPELLERS
The most importan; fact to keep in mind about
a runaway propeller is not to feather it until
you have tried out the 2 procedures which
should give you control of it. Drill these procedures into your copilot so he will understand
his part in controlling a runaway propeller.
It is seldom that a propeller runs away in a
B-24. When it does happen, it is usually on takeoff, and it is imperative to know what is happening and how to regain control. A first step
in knowing what to do is understanding normal
operation of the propeller. You have two controls over its performance: "INCREASE" -"DECREASE" toggle switches on the pedestal, and
fast-feathering buttons above the compass at
the top of the windshield. Prop governor lights
operate when the governors reach their limit
of travel in either direction. For riormal operation, you ~elect the most desirable rpm by holding the toggle switch toward "INCREASE" or
"DECREASE." A governor unit maintains the
selected engine speed during all subsequent
flight conditions, limited only by the angle of
blade rotation possible, which is determined by
pre-set governor limits. Automatic control of
engine speed is obtained through the propeller
by varying the blade angle to maintain a constant load on the engine: e.g., reducing the blade
angle when the load increases, as in a climb.
What Causes a Propeller to Run Away
When a propeller runs away, it sic:ply means
that the propeller governors fail to hold the
propeller at its constant rpm setting. Thus, before takeoff when engines are idling, propeller
is in low pitch (small bite), high rpm. Sudden
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and fast application of power may cause a propeller to exceed the governor limit speed before the governor has a chance to take hold and
increase the pitch. Governor cannot regain control until you throttle back and give it a chance.
· This is usually the case with a runaway propeller. However, if you have complete governor
failure, you may not be able to regain control
with throttle alone and will have to use the
feathering button intermittently as described
in the procedures that are given.
Preventive Action
The best way to cope with a runaway propeller
is not to get one. Carefully observe tachometer
reactions during run-up. Don't jam power on
during takeoff. Apply it smoothly. If rpm starts
to get out of bounds on an engine during first
part of run, don't take off if you have room left
in which to stop.
How
to
1. Be sure throttle is reduced.
2. Copilot (at pilot's direction) pushes the
feathering button in, holds onto it and watches
rpm. Be sure to get the ·right one or you'll be
short 2 engines. Take your time!
3. As the propeller decreases the rpm, increase the throttle to obtain climbing manifold
pressure and rpm of 2500.
·
4. When you reach 2500 rpm, forcibly pull
the feathering button out. This will keep rpm
from going lower. If governor doesn't take control of rpm, it will immediately start back up.
5. When propeller reaches 2700 rpm, push
feathering button in again and repeat the procedure to keep rpm between 2500 and 2700 and
to maintain desired manifold pressure. Continue this until you have reached an altitude
w~ere you can safely feather the propeller.
Regain Control
Always try this first, during takeoff and in
flight. It may give you immediate control of the
propeller so you can obtain a normal rpm
setting.
First Procedure:
1. Reduce the throttle. This is the first thing
necessary to slow the propeller down.
2. Work the toggle switch to decrease rpm.
This should slow t~e propeller down.
3. If this works, reset your throttle, keeping
close track of rpm. If it fails, then resort to the
second procedure given here.
Second Procedure:
This procedure is recommended for heavily
loaded airplanes because it gets more power
from the engine.
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Don't be in a hurry to feather. If either
of these procedures is keeping the propeller below 2700 rpm, you are getting some power from the engine possibly as much as 15% with the
throttle reduced and up to 65 or 70%
if the second procedure is working.
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EMERGENCY
FEATHERING
=-=- -· ~
Feathering has a fatal fascination for some
pilots. Say "Boo" and their fingers fly to the
feather ing buttons.
No emergency is urgent enough to justify
feathering the wrong engine. Then you are
short 2 engines. Remember, it is easier to throw
power away than to get it back.
If there are indications of engine failure you
are faced with 3 questions:
1. Which engine is failing?
2. What's wrong with it?
3. Does the failure call for feath ering?
The answers to these questions are nearly
always with you in the airplane. You can find
them if you have learned how to read the
signs: Yaw, vibration, increasing or decreasing
temperatures and pressures, excessive rpm,
manifold pressure, etc. Some of the questions
and answers are given in this section.
'l
'J
4 ,_
/ '
::J/
~
\~.'-ff.,<
?i h f
Feathering has several important advantages:
1. Minimizes damage to engine if failure is
caused by an engine part.
3. Improves flight performance of airplane
(if engine is dead) by eliminating the drag of
the windmilling propeller.
Feathering has equally important disadvantages:
1. Danger of feathering wrong propeller,
caused by featheritis. Pilots have been known
to feather 4 propellers. If you are that confused,
you might better use your time for bailing out.
2. Unnecessary loss of power from feathering when a reduction of power and proper procedures might have solved the problem or given
at least partial power.
Knowing When to Feather Is Fully as Important as Knowing How to Feather.
Emergency Feathering Checklist
1. Throttle back
2. Feather
3. Mixture and fuel booster pump off
4. Apply power on live engines
5. Gear up
6. Trimship
7. Cowl flaps closed
8. Ignition off
9. Generator off
10. Fuel valve off
In· Case No. 1 or No. 2 Engine Fails or
Both:
Check vacuum
Radio compass on (for direction aid · by
homing)
Autopilot tell-tale lights
Unfeathering
2. Eliminates vibration.
196
1. Fuel valve on
2. Ignition on
3. Prop low rpm
4. Throttle cracked
5. Supercharger off ( oil regulated supercharger only)
6. Unfeather
7. Mixture "AUTO-RICH," booster pump off
8. Warm up engine
9. Generator on
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AMPLIFIED EMERGENCY
FEATHERING
CHECKLIST
1. Throttle back. This procedure helps eliminate the possibility of feathering the wrong
propeller. If you throttle back the wrong engine, you will increase yaw on the dead
engine side.
2. Feather. Upon determining which engine
is defective, pilot presses feathering button in
and removes hand. Button should kick out
when propeller feathers. If not, propeller will
unfeather. In this case, press button again and
pull it out when the propeller stops in the
feathered position.
5. Gear Up. If the landing gear is extended,
copilot retracts it.
6. Trim Ship. Accomplished by pilot.
7. Cowl Flaps Closed. Copilot closes the cowl
flaps on the dead engine to decrease the drag
and opens the cowl flaps on the live engines to
the trail position if cylinder-head temperatures
are high.
3. Mixture and Fuel Booster Pump. Copilot
moves mixture control to- "IDLE CUT-OFF"
and switches fuel booster pump off. This is
neces~ary at times to stop the engine.
8. Ignition Off. Copilot cuts ignition switch
for dead engine.
9. Generator Off. Engineer switches off generator on dead engine.
4. Application of Power. Copilot adju.s ts mixture controls on other engines and increases
rpm. Pilot increases manifold pressure. Actions
of pilot and copilot are approximately simultaneous, but the increase of mixtures and rpm
should always precede the increase in manifold
pressure.
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10. Fuel Valve Off. Engineer turns off main
fuel valve of dead engine.
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3. Prop Low rpm. Copilot checks to see that
propeller is in full low ~m position.
'
In Case No. 1 or No. 2 Engine Fails, or Both:
Vacuum: Pilot checks vacuum if No. 1 or No.·
2 engines are stopped. Engineer changes
vacuum selector position if necessary.
Radio Compass: Copilot tunes in radio c0mpass to nearest station so that if both No. 1 and
No. 2 engines are stopped, pilot may fly instruments by using the radio compass as a turn indicator and to maintain direction by homing
from one station to another. Level flight may
be maintained by reference to the ball-bank
indicator for lateral attitude, and by reference
to airspeed, rate of climb and altimeter for
longitudinal attitude.
Automatic Pilot Tell-Tale Lights: If both No.
1 and No. 2 engines are stopped, there will be
no suction for operation of the gyro instruments. Since the autopilot · is equipped with
electric gyros, the pilot can turn it on, trim ship
and refer to the 'tell-tale lights to maintain
level-flight attitude. Using this procedure, the
autopilot clutches should not be engaged. This
can only be done with the C-1 automatic pilot.
UNFEATHERING
4. Throttle Cracked. Pilot cracks throttle.
5. Supercharger Off. Pilot checks to see that
supercharger control is in off position (with oil
regulated supercharger only) .
6. Unfeather. Pilot holds feathering button in
until 800 rpm is indicated and then releases it.
1. Fuel Valve On. Engineer turns on main
fuel valve.
2. Ignition . On. Copilot turns on ignition
switch.
198
7. Mixture Auto-rich. Copilot puts mixture
control in "AUTO-RICH," booster pump off.
8. Warm Up Engine. Warm up engine at 20"
manifold pressure in "AUTO-LEAN." Increase
power gradually as cylinder-head temperature
rises.
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9. Generator On. When power is increased as
engine warms up generator is turned on.
After Feathering
Once an engine is feathered there is always
danger of the failure of the remaining 3 e~gines. Reports of B-24 accidents prove this
point. Reason: Subsequent failures are caused
by pouring on the coal to the remaining engines without regard for proper power settings,
bringing on detonation and a complete loss of
power.
Be careful with that boost. Pilots who are
· perfectly aware of the danger of a heavy hand
on the throttles make this mistake. If you have
it to spare, sacrifice some altitude to get the airplane flying. Steady flying is imperative for 2
and 3-engine operation. If necessary, throw
some things overboard. Don't burn up the engines with excessive power.
Feathering Trouble
1. If You Feather the Wrong Prop: You can
stop the propeller from feathering if rpm is
not below 1000 by pulling out the feathering
button. But at less than 1000 rpm, feathering
must be complete before unfeathering starts.
2. If Propeller Feathering Buttons Do Not
Work: Hold the circuit breaker button down
(not more than 90 seconds) while operating the
feathering button. Circuit breaker buttons are
red buttons on top of pedestal.
3. If Propellers Feather and Unfeather Without Stopping: Wait until propeller is in feathered position and pull out the feathering button.
4. If You Have Lost All the Oil and Can't
Feather: Put propeller control in low rpm to
reduce windmilling drag as much as possible.
Engine oil systems provide oil for operation
of the propeller feathering system. On early
airplanes, the feathering pump draws its oil
supply from the "oil-in" line to the engine. On
later planes, the feathering pump draws its oil
supply from the sump at bottom of the oil tank.
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QU .ESTIONS
AND ANSWERS ON
FEATHERING
1. Q. What is the general rule regarding
feathering?
A. An engine losing power should not be
feathered as long as yaw is less than that of a
windmilling propeller, if there is not excessive
vibration and as long as instrument readings
are within reasonable limits. Reason: because
the power you are getting from the engine more
than offsets . the reduction in drag obtained
from feathering. Remember that engine failure
causes a loss of manifold pressure only if turbosuperchargers are engaged.
2. Q. Would you feather the prop of an engine
that was viblently vibrating?
A. Yes, if it continued to vibrate after reducing throttle, because violent vibration can cause
the engine to go to pieces or cause wing structural failure.
3. Q. How can you tell you have a useless
windmilling propeller and which engine is causing the trouble?
A. First by yaw. The airplane will yaw in
the direction of the dead engine, so you know
which side it is on. Then a close scrutiny of instrument readings will tell you by excessively
high or · low readings which engine is at fault,
particularly by low cylinder-head temperature.
4. Q. Would you feather the prop of an engine
that showed decreasing oil pressure?
A. Yes, if oil pressure falls below 30 lb.
There may be a broken oil line and you want to
get the propeller feathered before all the oil
runs out. At least one gallon of oil is required
in the feathering operation.
5. Q. If there is violent vibration, how can you
tell which engine is at fault?
A. First by visually checking to see which
engine is vibrating. Then by checking cylinderhead temperature, which would probably be
excessively high, and by checking rpm for
fluctuation.
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Know Your Landing Gear
MECHANICAL
FAILURES AND
PROCEDURES
Know whether the emergency landing gear
lowering system in your airplane is early design, with cable connection between emergency
hand crank and nose gear, or later type, without cable connection. Most airplanes of early
design have been modified; check yours, and if
it hasn't been modified, refer to Tech Orders for
proper procedure. Successful emergency lowering of landing gear depends on this procedure.
· Procedures applicable to later B-24 aircraft with
emergency landing gear hand crank connected
to main gear only.
EMERGENCY
LOWERING MAIN GEAR
LOWERING OF
LANDING GEAR
There are 4 ways to lower the gear on a B-24. It
is seldom that all 4 fail. Recently a pilot flew
around for 2 hours trying to figure out with an
ignorant engineer how to get the gear down.
Then, with 5 minutes of gas left, he executed a
belly landing which did $75,000 damage. Investigation showed that 60 seconds of know-how
would have P\.!t the gear down.
Know all emergency procedures. Rehearse
them with your engineer and copilot. Take an
afternoon and crawl around the airplane with
them. Read each procedure and dry-run it on
the spot. That's the way to get acquainted with
your airplane. Then, if an emergency arises,
you'll be ready.
II
1. Place the landing gear control lever on the
pilot's control pedestal in the "DOWN" position.
METHODS OF LOWERING THE
LANDING GEAR
1. Normal hydraulic operation.
2. By use of the auxiliary hydraulic pump.
3. By use of th~ hand hydraulic pump, front
star valve open, rear star valve closed.
4. Emergency hand crank method.
Important: First try all hydraulic methods of
lowering the landing gear.
200
2. Turn the emergency hand crank clockwise
until the main gear is down and locked. (This
requires approximately 30 turns.) The crank is
on the forward side of the front spar and may
be reached from the extreme forward end of
the bomb bay catwalk.
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Note: In case one gear comes down and locks
before the other gear is locked, and the tightness of the cable to the locked gear prevents
any further rotation of the hand crank, loosen
the turnbuckle on the tight cable and continue
cranking until the other gear is completely
down and locked.
'
tain to get at the nose gear) and remove the
butterfly pin (1) from its normal position.
3. In addition to checking the landing gear
warning light, check both wheels visually from
waist gun windows to see that they are down
and locked. (Flaps must be full up to permit
this check.)
4. Return landing gear control lever to neutral.
3. Insert the butterfly pin in the eye of the
latch linkage (2).
Re-setting Procedure
To re-set the emergency lowering system, turn
hand crank approximately 30 turns counterclockwise to normal position. Avoid cranking
too far and allowing the cable to jump off the
drums. Resafety the crank.
LOWERING NOSE GEAR
1. Place landing gear lever in the "DOWN"
position.
2. Enter nosewheel compartment ( on some
aircraft it is necessary to remove the draft cur-
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4. Release the nose gear latch by pushing up
on the drag link (3).
5. Take a sitting position near the top of the
shock strut. Grasp the top of the strut with both
hands and lift upward to force the gear into the
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MAIN GEAR FAILURES
extended position. It may be necessary to rock
the gear two or three times to get it moving. As
the gear passes the center of balance, be careful
to keep hands and arms clear of the gear
assembly.
NOTE: Try hydraulic operation several times
before resorting to mechanical methods.
A. Gear Fails to Lock Down
1. Hold landing gear selector valve down. If
this fails to lock gears:
2. Accomplish locking by manual emergency
method.
B. Gear Jams While Lowering
1. Attempt to lower with hand crank emergency procedure. Be sure to place the gear
selector valve in the "DOWN" position.
C. Gear Jams While Raising
1. Lower and attempt to raise again.
2. If this fails, lower and land.
D. Gear Fails to Lock in Up Position
1. Place landing gear selector valve in "UP"
position and hold it there until gear locks.
2. If gear fails to lock after this is repeated
several times, use hydraulic pressure to keep
gear in the up position. If necessary, return
selector valve to "UP" position frequently to
prevent gear from slipping down too far. (Not
recommended on long flights.)
E. One Gear Sticks Up and Will Not Lower
1. Raise lowered gear and attempt to lower
by emergency procedure. If this fails, land as
described in "Landing With One Maip Gear and
Nose Gear Extended, One Main Gear Retracted."
F. Gear Fails to Raise (No. 3 Engine Fails on
Takeoff)
1. Turn . the auxiliary hydraulic pump on.
Switch is located on forward face of bulkhead
No. 4.2, right side of fuselage.
2. Open emergency hydraulic (star) valve
aft of Station 4.1, right side of fuselage.
NOSE GEAR FAILURES
6. After the gear falls, make sure the lock is '
secure. If it is not securely locked, push upward on the lock assembly.
Note: Replace the butterfly pin as soon as
possible after landing.
202
Caution: All men should be out of nose gear
compartment while nose gear is being raised.
A. Gear Fails to Raise (No. 3 Engine or Hydraulic Pump Fails on Takeoff)
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1. Turn on main switch for auxiliary hydraulic pump.
2. Open emergency hydraulic (star) valve.
B. Gear Fails to Lower
1. For early type B-24's check setting and
safetying of:
·
a. Emergency dump valve (slotted lever
should be in vertical position).
b. Over-travel lock pin (pin must be in shallow grooves, not in deep slot). Pin is located
. under flight deck, Station 3.0, left side of fuselage.
2. Premature kick-out of landing gear selector valve:
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a. Overpower until operation is completed.
b. On ground adjust pressures to 850 lb. sq.
in. for "DOWN" and 1100 lb. sq. in. for "UP."
C. Accumulator-Type Shimmy Damper Failure: If nosewheel accumulator pressure falls
below 150 lb. in flight, install emergency nosewheel lock before landing, as follows:
1. Remove valve cap on bottom of nosewheel
accumulator and deflate accumulator completely.
2. Remove shoulder bolts "A" from locking
screw assembly "B."
3. Place head of screw assembly "C" over
end of damper shaft "D."
4. Force damper shaft into damper and insert two shoulder bolts "A" into block of screw
assembly.
5. Repeat accumulator deflation operation
(Step 1).
6. Repeat Steps 2, 3, and 4 for installing screw
assembly on opposite side of nose gear.
7. Screw handles "E" in as far as possible.
8. Tighten wing nuts "F."
9. Extend nose gear and land.
Caution: Remove locks at end of landing roll
and have airplane towed to parking area.
D. Houdaille Shimmy Damper Failure
1. There is no present means of locking this
type of shimmy damper. In case of failure,
make a nose-high landing just as if you had no
brakes or had a damaged nosewheel.
Caution: Don't lower nose until airplane
stops. Then lower gently and have the ship
towed to parking area.
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EMERGENCY BOMB
RELEASE SYSTEM
Telescoping
Rod Release Pin
Valve Arm in Neutral
Bomb Door Closed
Emergency Bomb Door Cam-Set Position
Valve Arm in Operating
Posit ion-Bomb Doors Opening
Emergency Bomb Door Cam-Tripped Position
Valve Arm in Neutral Position
Bomb Door Open
Emergency Bomb Door Com-Final Posit_ion
204
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EMERGENCY BOMB
RELEASE OPERATION
A. To Salvo Bombs
1. Pull pilot's emergency bomb release handle at rear of pedestal up approximately 4
inches, pause momentarily until bomb doors are
completely opened (notice red light on instrument panel). Continue pulling upward to release bomb load.
B. Re-setting Emergency Release
After emergency release of bombs by pilot,
the system must be re-set in order to place
bomb release system in operating condition and
to close bomb bay doors. On late series aircraft,
however, you can close bomb bay doors without
re-setting the system.
1. Place release handle in socket on control
pedestal.
2. In nosewheel compartment, take up slack
in cabl~ at cam located on right side of compartment between Stations 1.2 and 2.0.
3. Grasp cam at cable end and shove in until
cable is tight, which allows bomb door utility
valve to return to neutral position.
4. In the same compartment on left side of
ship, between Stations 1.2 and 2.0, re-set emergency telescoping rod by replacing pin so that
release system will function normally.
EMER.GENCY BOMB
DOOR OPERATION
A. To Open When Hydraulic System Fails
1. Move any bomb door release handle to
"OPEN." (If you use bomb door emergency and
utility (auxiliary) valve, under flight deck at
Station 4, right side of fuselage, it must be held
in "OPEN" position until procedure is completed.)
2. Pull hand cranks out of stowage clips, engage, and turn according to stenciled arrows on
bulkhead. Location-Station 5.0, one crank on
each side of catwalk.
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B. When Doors Open Partially and Stop
1. Check door tracks for possible obstructions.
2. Check bomb door mechanism, which
might be out of alignment.
C. When Doors Open Partially and Control
Lever Returns to Neutral Position
1. Overpower selector valve until doors are
open.
2. On ground adjust kick-out pressure of selector valve to 600 lb. sq. in. "OPEN," 1000 lb.
sq. in. "CLOSED."
AT ALL TIMES STAY CLEAR OF
BOMB BAY DOOR AREA WHEN
DOORS ARE BEING OPERA TED.
EM ERG ENCY WING
FLAP OPERATION
A. Emergency Hand Pump Operation (Located to Right of Copilot)
1. Place flap selector valve in "DOWN" position.
2. Break safety wire on needle valves with
hand pump handle-then close forward valve
and open aft valve.
3. Operate pump approximately 74 strokes or
until pump locks to lower flaps, observing position of flaps on the indicator.
4. If indicator shows flaps down, but pump
does not lock, investigate lines for leaks. Pump
must lock or flaps will not be down and will
creep up.
5. When flaps are completely lowered, return
selector valve to neutral position.
Before Flaps Can Again Be Operated Normally,
the Following Must Be Done
1. Both the needle valves should be ~eft open
for approximately one minute to dissipate the
pressure accumulated in the small emergency
flap line, thus allowing the piston within the
shuttle valve to return to normal position.
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2. If flaps cannot be raised, indicating shuttle
valve sticking, put wing flap selector valve in
"DOWN" position for a few seconds to break
shuttle valve loose, and then return selector
valve to neutral.
3. After this one-minute period the aft valve
can be safetied in the closed position and the
flaps operated normally.
B. F~ilure of Engine-driven Pump Only
1. Turn on emergency hydraulic (star) valve.
2. Turn.auxiliary hydraulic pump switch on.
C. Premature Kick-out of Selector Valve
This is caused by too low a pressure setting ·
or cold, congealed hydraulic· fluid.
1. Overpower selector valve until operation
is completed.
2. On ground adjust pressure settings to 750
•lb. sq. in. for up operation, and 450 lb. sq. in.
for down operation.
Caution: Do not lower flaps at speeds in excess of 155 mph IAS.
NOTE:
Be sure both needle valves are open
and flap selector valve is in neutral at same time ..
These valve settings then allow free passage
of the fluid in the emergency line
back to the reservoir.
C. Hydraulic Lines Broken or Leaking
Broken Lines: To prevent loss of fluid temporarily, squeeze and fold back end of tubing with
pliers.
Broken Pressure Line (Right Wing Front
Spar):
1. Cut No. 3 engine and feather propeller immediately.
2. Disconnect line between suction check
valve and engine-driven pump.
3. Turn on emergency hydraulic (star) valve
and start auxiliary hydraulic pump.
4. Turn emergency reservoir valve to vertical position until reservoir can be replenished. Then return valye to normal, horizontal
position.
5. Put No. 3 engine back into operation.
Leaking Lines: Excessive leaking can be remedied by tightening fittfogs with a tubing
wrench. Caution: Do not tighten beyond safe
limits.
·
D. Unloading Valve Sticking in Flight
Cause: Foreign particles or broken spring.
1. Gently tap valve with mallet to give free
movement of pistons.
2. In case of broken spring, the auxiliary hydraulic pump must be used to charge the accumulators.
A. Failure of Engine-driven Pump and Auxiliary Hydraulic Pump
Use emergency hand pump located to right of
copilot's seat. Forward valve open; aft valve
closed. This operates bomb bay doors, wing
flaps, and landing gears by .pumping fluid
through unloading valve and open center system and it charges accumulators, thus providing pressure for brakes.
E. Hydro-electric Constant Pressure Switch
Intermittently Cutting In and Out
_Cause: Leak in accumulator or auxiliary
pressure lines or faulty accumulator check
valve. This condition should be corrected or it
will result in fusing of points in switch.
1. Make certain emergency hydraulic (star)
valve is tightly closed.
2. Check for possible leaks.
F. Bomb Door Emergency and Utility Valve ·
Fails to Return to N ~utral, Causing Hydraulic
System to Chatter Violently
Reach in under radio deck and return valve
handle to neutral manually. Spring return is
probably not working.
B. Engine-driven Pump Fails to Operate
Open emergency hydraulic (star) valve and
be sure auxiliary hydraulic pump switch is
"ON."
G. Upper Part of Hydraulic Fluid Reservoir
Leaking
Turn emergency reservoir handle (suction
valve) to vertical position.
HYDRAULIC
SYSTEM FAILURES
206
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A,..
6~.,6·--~
~
If open center system pressure line on reservoir side of engine
pump check valve is shot out, the system wo"'t work except by
hand-pump lowering of wing flaps and accumulator discharge.
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207
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ELECTRICAL SYSTEM FAILURES
SYMPTOM
PROBABLE CAUSE
REMEDY
Autosyn instruments
go dead.
1. Fuse blown.
1. Replace 2-ampere fuse in copilot's fuse box
(at right of copilot).
2. Inverter trouble.
2. Switch to other inverter.
3. Inverter fuse blown.
3. Replace 30-ampere Slo-Blo fuse in copilot's
fuse box.
Propeller feathering
buttons do not work.
1. Circuit breaker holding circuit open or circuit
is burned out.
1. Hold circuit breaker button down while operating feathering button. (Circuit breaker buttons are red buttons top of pedestal.)
Propellers feather and
unfeather without
stopping.
1. Pressure cut-out
switch not working, or
wire to it is grounded.
1. Pull feathering button out when propeller is
fully feathered.
Propeller governor
failure.
1. Fuse blown.
1. Replace 10-ampere fuse in pilot's fuse box
(left of pilot). Do ~ flip switch back and forth
quickly.
Hydraulic gages show
no pressure.
1. No. 3 engine pump
not working.
1. Turn on toggle switch for auxiliary hydraulic
motor-in right front bomb bay on crossbar
high up-large toggle switch.
Landing gear down
lamp (green) does not
light.
1. Bulb burned out.
1. Replace with spare on panel
2. Fuse blown.
2. Replace 10-ampere·fuse in fuse box.
3. Micro switches
not working.
3. Have crew member visually check to see,
first, if nosewheel is down and latched; then if
main wheels are down and locked.
lnterphone dead.
1. Fuse blown.
1. Replace 10-ampere fuse in liaison junction
box, right side under radio table.
Radio compass
receiver dead.
1. Fuse blown.
1. Replace blown 5 or 10-ampere fuse (or both)
in radio compass splice box on aft support of
radio compass . unit, and 5-ampere fuse in copilot's fuse box.
2. Inverter fuse blown.
2. Replace 30-ampere Slo-Blo fuse in copilot's
fuse box.
3. Inverter trouble.
3. Switch to other inverter-switch on pedestal,
lower left side. Also check inverter relay in box
near inverter under flight deck.
208
..
near light.
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SYMPTOM
PROBABLE CAUSE
REMEDY
Command radio
receiver dead .
1. Fuse blown.
1. Replace fuse at modulator dynamotor unit.
(There are two 20-ampere fuses under removable covers on the base, with spares on the
opposite side.)
Liaison radio
transmitter dead.
1. Fuse blo.wn.
1. Warning: Turn switch off first. Voltage in
this unit is dangerously high. Replace power
fuse-there are 2 cartridge-type fuses, one 30
and one 60 ampere, and a 1000-volt fuse in
the output circuit of the liaison dynamotor at
rear right of radio compartment. Remove cover
to reach fuses. Liaison transmitter 1000-v_olt fuse
is reached by removing tuning coil section.
Fuses are inside and above space for tuning
unit.
liaison receiver
dead.
1. Fuse blown.
1. Replace fuse. Remove 2 knurled nuts on
front of receiver and slide out receiver; 5-ampere
fuse is on lower right hand side. There are no
spares in receiver. (Receiver is normally sealed.)
Bombing interval
control dead.
1. Fuse blown.
1. Replace
panel.
2. Interval control
defective.
2. Remove interval control plug and release
bombs manually.
1. Bomb door switches
open.
1. Check bomb doors-must be
Check fuse in Station 4.0 fuse box.
2. Voltage too low.
2. Check voltage at power panel on rear bulkhead of flight deck. If low (below 24 volts) cut
off all possible electrical equipment. See item
below.
Cannot release bombs
electrically.
15-ampere fuse
inside
bomber's
full
open.
Lights dim.
1. Check voltage of each generator at power
panel.
Motors slow to start.
2. Switch off any dead generator.
Motors noisy.
3. Switch off all electrical units not absolutely
necessary.
lnterphone weak.
DC Voltage Low
Radios weak or dead. ·
Inverter power weak
and inverter action
erratic.
Bomb release interval
control dead.
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4. Start auxiliary power supply unit. Equalizer
switch may be turned on if engine generators are
working.
5. Look for and switch off any electrical unit
damaged, shorted, heating badly or obviously
defective.
6. Adjust voltage regulators to maximum.
Note: The above operations are to be tried in
order, not going further when the trouble clears
up.
209
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BAILING OUT
OF THE B-24
It is the responsibility of the airplane commander to make certain on every flight:
1. That a parachute is available and satisfactorily fitted for each person making the
flight.
2. That the parachute is conveniently located
at the normal position of the person making the
flight and that he knows its location, how to put
it on, how and where to leave the airplane, how
to open the chute and how to land and collapse the chute. (See P.I.F.)
210
3. That a life vest is worn under the chute
harness on all over-water flights and that the
crew knows the location, how to attach and how
to use the individual seat-type life raft.
4. That all persons aboard know the bailout
signals and the bailout procedure to be followed.
The easiest and. most effective way to carry
out this responsibility is to appoint a parachute
officer ( usually the engineer) who will make a
special study of equipment, its use, approved
bailout signals, and the proper method of leaving the airplane. He will assist in conducting
bailout drill once each week on the ground until
the entire crew is proficient, and as often thereafter as necessary to keep the crew conscious
of the proper care and wearing of equipment.
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Such drill only takes a few minutes at the conclusion of a practice mission.
When to Bail Out
In all cases it is the positive responsibility of
the airplane commander to decide when a bailout emergency exists. Never shirk your responsibility by putting it up to the crew. In case of
fire, fuel exhaustion, mid-air collision, weather
which makes a landing dangerous, or other
hazardous circumstances only you, the airplane
commander, can judge the extent of the danger
and whether or not the crew should bail out.
Radio Your Position
The instant you suspect an emergency is developing, get your position from the navigator
and have the radio operator broadcast your
position and your difficulty. This may save
hours or even days for rescue parties searching
for you.
Bailout Signals
Leaving
Through The
Bomb Bay
(Check to be sure all crew members can hear
the alarm bell in flight.)
Prepare to Bail Out: Three short rings on
the alarm bell. Also warn the crew by interphone and obtain acknowledgment from each
crew member.
Bail Out of the Airplane: One long sustained
ring.
Don't Bail Out: If you have given the signal
"Prepare to bail out," don't hit the bell again or
the boys will all leave. If you want to call off
the emergency, send the engineer to do it or
notify crew members by interphone. Where
pilots have used a series of short rings to call
off the emergency, half the crew have in some
cases hit the silk.
Bailout Procedure
·1. At the signal "Prepare to bail out," all the
crew will acknowledge by interphone and make
immediate preparations to leave the ship,
checking parachute snaps and attaching the
quick attachable-type chute if so equipped.
2. Pilot or bombardier (at pilot's direction)
will open the bomb bay doors and jettison
bombs to provide clearance for jumping; naviRESTRICTED
Leaving
Through The
Nosewheel
Hatch
.
~
211
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Leaving
Through
Belly Hatch
Legs Together
And Straight
When Clear
Of The Ship
212
gator will open the nosewheel hatch by pulling down on the 2 red handles at Station 1.0
on the cross-member under navigator's table;
tail gunner opens belly hatch. These are the 3
best bailout exits.
3. Crew should check each other's equipment to be sure it is properly fastened and
attached.
4. Pilot slows airplane down to 150 mph (to
140 mph with 20 ° of flaps) before giving bailout
signal.
5. Exits for bailout:
a. Navigator and bombardier (nose turret
gunner) leave through the nosewheel hatch
one after the other, facing front of ship,
crouching near opening with hands on each
side and rolling out headfirst.
b. Tail gunner and left waist gunner exit
through belly hatch from a crouching position facing the direction of flight.
c. Ball turret gunner and right waist gunner leave through rear bomb bay; flight engineer, radio operator, copilot, and pilot also
leave through the bomb bays, crouching on
the catwalk facing the direction of flight.
Warning: It is extremely important in all
cases to face the front of a B-24 and roll out
headfirst. The airplane is traveling fast, and if
you jump toward the rear there is danger of
being slapped up against the airplane. If you
jump feet first, the wind can catch your legs
and bang your head on the edge of the hatch.
6. Don't pull the ripcord until you have
straightened your legs and are well clear of the
airplane, unless bailing out at a low altitude.
See P.I.F. for instructions on how to fall and
how to land under various circumstances.
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Duties Before Landing on Water
DITCHING THE B-24
Ditching drill is the responsibility of the pilot.
Duties should be studied, altered if necessary
to agree with any modifications, memorized,
and practiced until each crew member performs
instinctively.
The 'moment a ditching emergency arises the
pilot gives the signal for crew to take ditching
positions, the altitude, · and the approximate
number of minutes before impact. This should
be acknowledged by the crew in this order: copilot, navigator, bombardier, nose gunner, *
flight engineer, radio operator, right waist
gunner, left waist gunner, belly gunner, and
tail gunner, with the words, "Copilot ditching,
navigator ditching," etc.
Alarm Bell Ditching Signals:
1. Crew to ditching positions-6
short rings.
2. Brace for ditching-I long ring
just before impact.
Procedure
Immediately, all crew members should remove
ties and loosen shirt collars and remove oxygen
masks unless above 12,000 feet, in which case
oxygen continues to be used until notification
by the pilot.
All crew members wearing winter flying
boots should remove them, but remove no other
clothing. Then each crew member performs his
specific duties. Have life vests on but do not
inflate them before exit from airplane.
Upon warning to ditch, crew members will
remove parachutes and parachute harness.
*Ten-man crew would have only one waist gunner if it has
a nose gunner. All positions are mentioned as a guide. Each
airplane commander will have to adapt procedures to his
particular needs and equipment.
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Pilot: After giving the warning he remains in
the normal ·flight position for ditching. Fastens
safety belt and shoulder harness but unfastens
parachute straps. Shortly before impact, he
gives a long ring on the alarm bell to notify the
crew to brace for ditching.
Copilot: Remains in normal flight position.
Unfastens parachute straps and fastens safety
belt and shoulder harness. Assists pilot as necessary.
Navigator: Calculates position, course, speed,
and estimated position of ditching and gives
information to radio operator. Destroys secret
papers. Gathers maps, compass, and celestial
equipment. Goes to flight deck and takes ditching position.
Bombardier: Jettisons bombs and closes bomb
doors. Destroys bombsight. Goes to rear compartment, checks position of others and takes
ditching position.
Nose Gunner: Jettisons ammunition, locks
nose turret in forward position, and goes to
ditching position.
Flight Engineer: Turns guns aft. Shoots out
or jettisons ammunition. Avoid getting shell
cases jammed in the bomb doors. Opens and
removes top hatch and jettisons it and loose
equipment thro~gh the bomb bay and checks
to see that it is closed. Closes floor door and
rear door to flight deck after navigator comes
up. Takes ditching position.
Radio Operator: Turns IFF to distress,
switches on liaison transmitter (turned to MF
DF frequency) sends SOS, position, and call
sign continuously. On order from the pilot he
clamps down key, hinges up radio table and
takes ditching position.
Left Waist Gunner: Opens left waist window
and leaves it open, jettisons left waist gun, ammunition and all loose equipment, preferably
through the belly hatch to avoid damaging tail
surfaces. Takes ditching position.
·. Right Waist Gunner: Opens right waist window and leaves it open. Jettisons right waist
gun, ammunition and loose equipment, preferably through the belly hatch to avoid damaging
tail surfaces. Goes to ditching position and
remains on interphone.
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Belly Gunner: Retracts ball turret and jettisons ammunition, preferably through belly
hatch if time permits . Takes ditching position.
Tail Gunner: Lines up turret directly aft and
locks. Comes out of tail, helps jettison ammunition and check belly hatch firmly closed. Takes
ditching position.
A crew member and an alternate will be
designated by the pilot before flight to take the
emergency radio transmitter and all other
emergency equipment to the radio room before
ditching and will be responsible for getting this
equipment to the life raft.
Warning: If time permits, waist windows
should be removed and jettisoned through the
belly hatch to avoid danger of their closing and
jamming shut on impact. It is most important
that all bottom hatches be closed and that the
top hatch and waist windows be open.
Ditching Positions
It is impossible to specify ditching positions
which will apply to every B-24 crew as location
of equipment in the airplane will vary as well
as crew composition. Each pilot with the help
of the following information should assign definite braced positions for each of his crew members which will apply to the airplane he is flying. Crew · members should use cushions and
parachutes to help cushion the shock of impact
and to protect the head from flying debris.
The command deck which is located above
the bomb bay has proven itself the best possible
ditching station in the airplane. As many crew
members as possible should take up ditching
positions at this station. Your airplane may
have one of the two types of ditching belts on
the command deck:
1. A single belt to be mounted across the
fuselage with crew positions as follows:
a. Five men seated in belt facing aft, hands
behind head.
b. Two additional men seated in front of
the fl.ye men braced against their legs, facing
aft, hands behind head (the belt is stressed
for seven men) .
2. A set of three short belts in tandem with
crew positions as follows:
a. One man in the forward belt facing aft,
214
hands behind head.
b. Two men in the middle belt facing aft,
hands behind head.
c. Two men in rear belt facing aft, hands
behind head.
3. If your airplane is not equipped with a
ditching belt, crew members will lie down, back
to the floor, feet in direction of flight with knees
flexed or sit facing aft, back braced against a
bulkhead or another man's legs. The best exit
is the hatch above command deck but waist
windows may be used as alternate exit.
On the flight deck the pilot and copilot will
ditch in their seats with safety belt and harness
fastened. Possible ditch~ng positions for crew
not able to ditch on the command deck are as
follows:
a. Standing behind pilot's seat with back
braced against armor plate or canvas bulkhead, hands braced against sill of open hatch
( two men can brace here side by side if necessary).
b. Standing behind copilot's seat back
braced against armor plate or canvas bulkhead, hands braced against ceiling.
Approved ditching positions have been published showing men sitting on the floor of the
flight deck. However, subsequent reports indicate that a standing position is preferable to
avoid injury from the top turret which often
comes down on impact. Exits on the flight deck
are top hatch and pilot's and copilot's windows.
4. The waist is ·t he least desirable ditching
station and should only be used if the command
deck is not available. If it becomes necessary to
use the waist the following positions are recommended:
a. Braced against ditching belts if provided.
b. The linked arm position.
First man; seated on left side of waist,
facing forward, feet against turret step,
knees slightly flexed.
Second man; on right side of first man,
same posture.
Third man; seated facing the left window behind the first man, feet against the
fuselage, knees bent.
Fourth man; on the left side of the third
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man, same posture.
Fifth man; seated facing the right window behind the second man, feet braced
against the fuselage, knees bent.
Sixth man; on right side of the fifth man,
same posture. All six men link arms.
c. The strength of the positiQning is in
leg bracing and arm linking. This can only
be learned in ditching drill.
d. The position loses strength as the numbers are reduced but is considered efficient
down to four men.
Approach and Touchdown
Pilot determines direction of approach well in
advance. Touchdown parallel to lines of crests
and troughs in winds up to 35 mph. Ditch into
wind only if wind is over 35 mph or if there
are no swells. Use flaps in proportion to power
available to obtain minimum safe forward speed
with minimum rate of descent. In every case
try to ditch while power is still available.
Touchdown in a normal landing attitude. Severe decelerations and several impacts may be
expected, so warn your crew not to move until
the airplane has come to rest.
ilG
HOW TO DETERMINE WIND SPEED
A few white crests . ........... 10 to 20 mph
Foam streaks on water . ....... 30 to 40 mph
Many white crests . ........... 20 to ' 30 mph
Spray from crests . ............ 40 to 50 mph
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215
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Procedure After Landing
When the airplane has come to rest, engineer
will pull releases on life rafts. Exits will be
made as follows:
Pilot: exits through flight deck hatch, goes to
left life raft.
Copilot: exits through flight deck hatch, goes
to right life raft.
Navigator: exits through flight deck hatch,
goes to left life raft.
Engineer: exits through flight deck hatch,
goes to right life raft.
Radio Ope1·ator: Exits through flight deck
hatch, goes to left life raft.
Right Waist Gunner: exits through rear
hatch, goes to right life raft.
Belly Gunner: exits through rear hatch, goes
to left life raft.
Bombardier: exits through rear hatch, goes to
right life raft.
Left Waist Gunner: exits through rear hatch,
goes to left life raft.
Tail Gunner: exits through rear hatch, goes to
left life raft.
216
Pilot and copilot will take command each of
his life raft, call roll, and check survival equipment if time permits before life rafts are cut
loose from the airplane.
Note: If time and circumstances permit, take
out the frequency meter and be sure to keep it
dry. By attaching antenna from the Gibson Girl
emergency radio to frequency meter, it can be
operated as an efficient receiver to provide !way communication for several hours.
The Time Element
Speed is important, but so is procedure. Give
first attention to injured persons. Don't leave
necessary equipment behind or you will face
starvation and have no means of signaling for
help. Drill to get maximum teamwork.
Survival
Pilot should study P.I.F. and survival booklets
and instruct crew so all will know how to make
the most of life raft equipment, how to signal,
and how to survive on the sea.
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Fl RES
control, open the starter access door and direct
CO 2 nozzle toward base of flame, if possible.
Do not risk personal injury by attacking fire
before propellers are stopped or by attacking
fire from top of wing or nacelle; heat and
flame rise.
Radioman will:
1. Stand by to aid in determining source of
trouble and correcting it.
ELECTRICAL FIRE ON GROUND
ENGINE FIRE ON GROUND
If fire occurs as engine is starting, keep engine
running in an effort to blow out fire, or to suck
fire into the induction system. If fire persists, or
engine does not start:
Pilot will:
1. Give command "Extinguish fire in No.
engine."
2. Place throttle in full open position.
3. Put mixture controls in "IDLE CUTOFF."
Copilot will:
Turn off fuel booster pump.
2. Turn off all engine ignition switches to
protect ground personnel.
3. Place carbon dioxide (CO2) selector valve
in position for engine affected.
4. Pull fire extinguisher release handle if
fireman standing by cannot control fire.
5. Pull release handle, opening remaining
CO 2 bottle, if fire persists.
Engineer will:
1. Turn off fuel selector valve of affected
engine.
2. Obtain CO 2 bottle from flight deck and
assist fireman standing by for starting engines.
Fireman will:
1. Direct CO 2 at base of fire. When fire in
accessory compartment resists other means of
1:
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•
Pilot will:
1. Give command "Extinguish electrical fire
in ... {location)."
2. Stop engines by placing mixture controls
in "IDLE CUT-OFF."
Copilot will:
1. Place battery and main line switch in
"OFF" position.
2. Turn off fuel booster pump.
Engineer will:
1. Determine that all sources of electnca1
power are off, including generators, auxiliary
power unit or battery cart.
2. Turn valve off on sight fuel gauge~.
3. Proceed to scene of fire with CO2 bottle
from flight deck and direct same at base of fire.
Radioman will:
1. Stand by to aid in determining source ot
trouble and correcting it.
'
Note: If fire persists, copilot will leave airplane to summon outside aid.
~-- ·
"\
OTHER FIRES ON GROUND
•
Pilot will:
1. Give command "Extinguish fire in . . .
(location)."
2. Stop engines by placing mixture controls
in "IDLE CUT-OFF."
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Copilot will:
1. Turn booster pumps off.
2. Turn main line switch off.
3. Proceed to scene of fire with CO2 bottle
from flight deck and direct same at base of fire.
Engineer will:
1. Turn fuel selector valves and fuel sight
gauge valve off.
2. Obtain second CO2 bottle from rear of airplane and aid copilot in extinguishing fire.
Radioman will:
1. Contact local control tower and request
aid of fire truck, upon pilot's orders.
2. Go to scene of fire to assist in moving
cargo or rendering other aid.
Note: If fire persists, copilot will leave airplane to summon outside aid.
ENGINE FIRE IN AIR
Pilot will:
1. Give command "Extinguish fire in No.
engine."
2. Order engineer to turn off fuel selector
valve.
. 3. Feather propeller of affected engine and
place mixture control in "IDLE CUT-OFF"
when fuel in lines has been exhausted and fuel
pressure has dropped to zero.
4. Warn crew to be ready to bail out if necessary.
Copilot will:
1. Open cowl flaps and check booster pump
in "OFF" position.
2. Place selector valve of engine fire extinguisher (panel on flight deck to right of copilot's seat) to position for engine affected (if
CO2 system is aboard). Other selector valve in
"OFF" position.
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3. Pull the CO2 release valve handle of one
bottle.
4. Pull secm1d release handle, opening remaining CO2 bottle, if fire persists.
Engineer will:
1. Immediately place fuel selector valve in
"OFF" position for engine affected.
2. Open bailout hatches if condition is seri.,
ous.
Navigator will:
1. Determine location of airplane at time of
fire if distress signals are to be sent.
Radioman will:
1. Stand by to send distress messages.
ELECTRICAL FIRES IN AIR
Pilot will:
1. Give command "Extinguish electrical fire
in ... (location)."
2. Warn crew to be ready to bail out if
necessary.
Copilot will:
1. Place battery switches in "OFF" position
(not the main line).
Note: No lights or engine . instruments will
operate under this condition. Flashlights must
be kept on hand at all times during night flights.
Engineer will:
1. Place all generator switches in "OFF"
position.
2. Make certain auxiliary power unit is off.
3. Obtain CO2 hand fire extinguisher and direct it at base of fire.
Navigator will:
1. Assist engineer at location of fire .
Radioman will:
1. Assist engineer at location of fire.
OTHER FIRES IN AIR
Pilot will:
1. Give command "Extinguish fire in . . .
(location)."
2. Warn crew to be ready to bail out if necessary.
Copilot will:
1. Turn off all heater switches and valves.
2. Proceed with flight engineer to scene of
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fire, obtaining if possible, second CO2 bottle
from rear of airplane.
Engineer will:
1. Proceed to scene of fire with CO2 bottle
from flight deck.
2. Open escape hatches if condition is serious enough to prepare to abandon plane.
Navigator will:
1. Determine location of aircraft at time of
fire if distress signals are to be sent.
2. Act as liaison between crew members, etc.
Radioman will:
1. Stand by to send distress messages.
2. Assist engineer at scene of fire with pilot's
permission.
EFFECTS OF CARBON DIOXIDE AND
CARBON TETRACHLORIDE FUMES
Carbon Dioxide
Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) is a non-poisonous gas
and breathing it will not adversely affect a human being either at the time it is inhaled or
afterwards. If the concentration of CO2 gas is
high enough, it will have a smothering effect,
through the exclusion of oxygen, but the quantity of carbon dioxide gas contained in a hand
extinguisher installed in aircraft is not _sufficient
to raise the concentration in an airplane cabin
to this point.
Carbon Tetrachloride
Carbon tetrachloride is a volatile fluid, the
gases of which when inhaled in large amounts
act as an anesthetic, causing drowsiness, dizziness, headache, excitement, anesthesia, or sleep.
One or more of these symptoms may occur.
If small doses of the fumes should be breathed
in over a period of time the first probable effect
would be drowsiness followed by sleep or perhaps headache and nausea.
If any odor of carhon tetrachloride is detected while flying, an investigation to determine
its source should be made immediately. If it is
found that a fire extinguisher is leaking, it
should be corrected at once or the extinguisher
should be placed where it will not leak in the
cabin.
Caution: Carbon tetrachloride is poisonous
if taken internally. Even ¼ of a teaspoonful
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may prove fatal. Symptoms of poisoning do not
appear for several days after the fluid is taken
into the stomach, thus giving a false sense of
security. Anyone who accidentally ingests some
of the fluid should report to the surgeon immediately for advice and necessary treatment.
Warning: In the presence of a flame, carbon
tetrachloride produces a poisonous gas. When
sprayed on a fire, carbon tetrachloride produces
phosgene, one of the poisonous gases used during World War I. Inhaling even a small amount
under such conditions may produce harmful
effects and, if a sufficient quantity· is taken into
the lung, the result may be fatal. A void br~athing the fumes when using the fluid on a fire.
FIRE EXTINGUISHER SYSTEM
Engine Fire Extinguisher CO 2
There are 2 panels on the floor outboard of the
copilot. Each panel has a 2-way engine _selector
valve by means of which the gas can be directed to either of 2 engines,, and a pull handle
which opens the flow from the CO2 cylinders.
Either or both CO2 ·cylinders may be used to
discharge through either panel. Thus, when one
cylinder is exhausted, the other cylinder may
be used as a source of supply for any engine.
A perforated tubing ring around the engine
nacelle discharges CO2 into the engine area.
Note: The 2 engine system bottles will empty
overboard if prematurely discharged by builtup pressure. A break in the red seal in the skin
on the right side of the nose is then visible
from the outside only at Station 3.0. Make sure
the safety wire on the pull handle is unbroken.
Hand Extinguishers
Inside-On aircraft up through 42-40137, one
CO 2 bottle is behind the pilot and one is at
Station 6.0. From 42-40138 through 42-72864,
another CO 2 bottle is added at Station 1.0 above
navigator's map case. From 42-72865 and on,
only one CO 2 bottle is provided, located behind the pilot.
Two carbon tetrachloride hand extinguishers are available from the outside through
easily recognizable red doors and from the inside through zipper coverings. One is on the
left side of the fuselage near the jack pad, and
the other on the right side aft of the bomb bay.
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Engine Fire Extinguisher System-Prior to B-24D 42-40393
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•
FLARES
AND
PYROTECHNICS
To Eiect a Flare
The flare tube is fitted with 2 controls; one a
toggle handle located on the inboard side of
the tube ·which opens the door in the bottom
of the fuselage uncovering the flare tube, and
the second a handle located on the aft side of
the flare tube which is the flare handle.
Flares
Pyrotechnics
Flare ejector tube is located on the left of the
center line of the airplane immediately forward
of entrance door, between Stations 7.2 and 7.3.
The pyrotechnic installation located on the left
side of flight deck between Stations 3.0 and 4.0
consists of:
1 Type M-2 signal pistol
1 Type A-1 portable signal container
9 Type M-10, M-11 signals
1 Type A-1 holder, pyrotechnic pistol
On B-24D aircraft Serial No. 41-23640 and on,
stowage has been changed to the rear compartment, right side, between Stations 7.4 and 7.5.
To Load a Flare
Move operating handle downward. This rotates
cam so that flare can enter tube. Insert the flare
to the proper po::;ition where cam enters the slot
in the side of the flare casing. Connect the flare
safety to the fish line on reel.
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Night Inspection
Don't neglect your inspection of the airplane
and crew. Trouble at night is double trouble.
Perform your exterior inspection with a flashlight and with extra care. There is a greater
Night fl:ying the B-24 is very much like day flying because in each case you fly the airplane
very largely by reference to instruments. Difficulties in almost every case are traceable to
failure on the part of the airplane commander
to make allowances for the fact that the sun
doesn't shine at night. You must faithfully perform all procedures necessary in day flying
plus others made necessary by the fact that it is
dark. Following is a list of practical suggestions
that make night flying easier and safer.
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TWO NAVIGATION LIGHTS- RED
m
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SEVEN BLUE
FORMATION LIGHTS
AMBER- RED -GREEN
TWO WHITE
TAIL LIGHTS ONE OUTBOARD
OF EACH VERTICAL TAIL FIN
TWO NAVIGATION
LIGHTS-GREEN
~
BOMB RELEASE LIGHT
DIRECTLY UNDER TURRET
::a
WHITE LIGHT GOES ON WHEN THE BOMB DOORS HAVE BEEN FULLY OPENED
RED GOES ON DURING BOMB RELEASE PERIOD
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chance that the engineer may have missed
something. Make sure the crew is fully and
properly equipped. Make it an ironclad rule to
The best time make this check is during the
visual control check. Have the ground crew
check all lights the engineer can't see.
have an extra flashlight aboard with extra batteries and bulbs.
Purpose of Exterior Lights
While you are making the exterior inspection, have the engineer turn on the master
switch, battery selector switches, and the radio
operator's cockpit light. Then you can use compartment light to aid the interior inspection.
Remember that a surplus supply of fuel and
oxygen is doubly important at night when your
flight can be unexpectedly prolonged because
of navigation or weather difficulties.
Always specifically question the radio operator to make certain that radio equipment is in
top condition. Radio failure at night is a serious
hazard.
Checklist
Use the checklist. It's easier to overlook something at night than in the daytime because even
the best light casts shadows and gives the cockpit a different appearance.
Instrument Panel Lights
Two different types of lights are used to illuminate the instrument panels of B-24's: the tubetype and spotlight-type fluorescents. The spotlight type uses direct current (DC) and can be
turned on as soon as you are seated. The tube
type uses alternating current (AC) and must
be turned on after AC power is on, just before
starting engines. In each case there are 4 panel
lights equipped with individual rheostat control
and with filters which should be adjusted for
minimum glare and maximum fluorescent illumination. Proper adjustment of filters will
greatly increase the ease and speed with which
you can read instruments. After your AC
power is on, turn on your compass light (AC
rheostat control).
1. Running or Position Lights: These 6
lights consist of 2 green starboard lights, one
on top and one beneath the right wingtip; 2 red
port lights, one on top and one beneath the left
wingtip; and 2 white tail lights, ·one outboard of
each vertical tail fin. These mark the extremities of the airplane and show which way it is
moving through the darkness. They are con- ·
trolled by a toggle switch on the pilot's pedestal.
2. Passing Light: This is a red spotlight located between No. 1 and 2 engines. It may be
left on or turned on when in the vicinity of
other aircraft to give notice of your position.
3. Recognition Lights: There are 4 of these,
one (white) located on top of the fuselage above
the bomb bays and 3 (amber, red, and green)
sunk into the fuselage skin beneath the bomb
bay catwalk. There is a separate 3-position
foggle switch for each light, positions "ON,"
."BLINK," and "OFF." In the blink position, a
telegraph key can be used for blinking the color
of the day when operating in combat zones, or
for code signaling. · Various combinations of
colors and signals make it possible to vary the
code as frequently as desired.
4. Formation Lights: These 7 blue lights are
located on top of the empennage to aid in formation flying. They form a perfect "T" on
which other airplanes can guide in night formation flying.
Check Exterior lights
Without exterior lights, the B-24 is a big roaring hunk of darkness. If a running light is out,
other aircraft can't tell whether your airplane
is coming, going, or standing still. Learn the
purpose and use of exterior lights and have the
engineer see that all are in good working order.
224
5. Bomb Release Lights: These are located
at the extreme aft end of the plane under the ,
tail turret. The white light goes on when the
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bomb doors have been fully opened. The white
light goes out and the red light goes on during
the bomb release period; it is extinguished 5
seconds after the last bomb has dropped. This
gives warning and protection to other airplanes
in your formation. In training, these lights are
sometimes wired to remain on all the time.
6. Landing Lights: The 2 landing lights are
located just inboard of the wheel wells with separate toggle switches for each. They are extremely powerful and produce terrific heat confined in a small space. When the plane is flying,
this heat is dissipated r~pidly, but on the
ground it can quickly burn out the bulb, especially in warmer climates. Never leave them
burning for over 3 minutes when the pJane is
on the ground.
Taxiing at Night
1. Follow all daytime procedures with extra
care. Be sure the flight indicator and directional
gyro are working perfectly. You'll rely on them
more than ever.
2. Turn off all inside white lights for taxiing.
Use both landing lights while taxiing in close
quarters but turn off one as soon as possible
and then switch back and forth from one to the
other every one to . two minutes to avoid overheating. Make turns with the inside landing
light on.
3. Post an observer with his head out the
flight deck hatch. Clear congested areas with a
man on each wingtip and one out in front.
Warning: Use extraordinary precautions.
You can't see your wingtips and obstructions
are concealed. Don't go off the runway, or ram
parked aircraft.
4. If in doubt, ask the tower where to turn.
It will keep you from ending up in a mudhole
or on some strange main street.
5. Remember there are other aircraft around.
Get radio clearance from the tower for crossing runways. If taxiing toward a landing runway, retract your landing lights to keep from
blinding incoming pilots. When you get in position for run-up, turn off your landing lights to
save batteries and avoid overheating.
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Run-up
Your run-up is the same as in the daytime,
but you have the problem of interior lighting.
Be sure and have a red filter on the radio operator's light, or the white light will impair your
night vision. Use a filtered flashlight to further
aid your run-up check. Always make sure crew
. are in proper positions for takeoffs and landings
and that one crew member in rear compartment is on interphone.
Takeoff
Make certain of your radio clearance to the
takeoff runway and check for incoming airplanes. As you turn into position for takeoff be
sure that you are lined up straight with the
runway lights and that the nosewheel is
straight.
Landing lights should be used or not in accordance with local requirements. However
always flash both lights down the runway long
enough to make certain that the way is clear.
Fatal accidents have resulted from failure to
do this.
Top Turret Observer: ~ere possible put a
man in this position during landings, takeoffs,
and traffic flying to observe and report all traffic
by interphone.
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Stay down the runway by combining the use
of the directional gyro and reference to the runway lights after you get rolling. Three instruments govern your takeoff: directional gyro,
flight indicator and airspeed indicator. Be particularly careful not to hurry the airplane off
the ground at night. If you have plenty of runway, get 5 to 10 mph extra flying speed ( especially if heavily loaded) and let the airplane fly
itself off, judging your attitude by the flight
indicator. Hold to your rate of climb., your airspeed and your gyro heading. After you leave
the runway it is easy to get into a turn if you
don't follow your directional gyro and flight indicator. Don't lower the nose so that the miniature airplane on the flight indicator drops below the horizon bar or you will fly into the
ground. Control airspeed with slight change in
attitude.
Immediately after leaving the ground you'll
find yourself in sudden darkness. Fly by reference to instruments. Flying half contact and
half instruments at night is fatal, especially on
takeoffs over dark areas. Pilot' should be entirely on instruments but copilot can remain in
outside contact when not checking instruments,
his principal duty. It is a good idea to ask the
copilot to call off airspeeds during night takeoffs. Get an altitude of 500 to 1000 feet before
referring to the terrain and don't attempt to
turn until you have full climbing airspeed and
are at least 1000 feet above the terrain.
Caution: W am the copilot not to glare the
flashlight in your eyes if he is using it for periodic check of instruments.
Alert Your Crew
1
Spotting other aircraft should be the regular
job of your crew just as. in combat. Require
them to report the position and direction of
travel of all aircraft within the zone of vision
of their respective positions. Check immediately with the responsible crew member if an
airplane appears _unreported. Make your crew
feel you are relying on them for specific duties.
Don't Chase Lights
It is difficult to tell whether a light is in the air
or on the ground, whether it is moving or
standing still. Don't chase lights. You may find
226
you have unintentionally dropped a wing to
follow a light. The best procedure is to closely
follow your gyro heading, check the attitude of
your airplane and line up the light with a reference point on the airplane. Then you can soon
tell whether it is moving, and in what direction
in relation to your line of flight.
1. Synchronize propellers with a flashlight
or by the reflection from landing lights.
2. Require the entire crew to use oxygen
from the ground up for all flights above 10,000
·
feet.
3. Require the copilot to check all instruments regularly-with a filtered flashlight if
difficult to read.
4. Restrict banks to standard needle-width
turns.
5. Keep track of where you are and require
a record to be kept of the time flown on each
heading.
6. Keep an hourly log of fuel consumption
without fail.
7. Require the radio operator to send in position reports every 30 minutes.
8. Know the terrain over which you are fly:.
ing, elevations, location of airfields, location of
airways, etc.
9. Don't unnecessarily increase the intensity
of cockpit lights when flying instruments at
night. This impairs night vision for at least 30
minutes after lights are turned down.
10. Turbulence: Reduce airspeed to 150 mph
to reduce strains on the aircraft.
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eter setting and the length of the landing runway so you know exactly what to prepare for
and to expect. Plan ahead.
As soon as you are called in, proceed at once
to join traffic. Tell the tower where you are,
and call as you enter the downwind leg, base
leg, and final approach. The more information
the tower has about you, the more it can do to
guide you safely in traffic.
Execute procedures just as in the daytime.
Flying your gyro heading and timing your distance out from the end of the runway on the
downwind leg is doubly important. Remember
that a high wind will drift you out considerably
on a long base leg.
Turning on Final Approach
11. Remember that a flash of lightning can
cause temporary blindness for 10 minutes or
more. Where there are repeated flashes of lightning, it may be necessary to turn on all cockpit
lights as bright as possible and go entirely on
instruments. If · static gets bad in the headphones, turn voiume low or put earphones up
off ears.
One of the key points in night flying is judging
when to turn on final approach. ·your turn will
carry you about ¾ of a mile closer to a projection of the landing runway. As you come along
Radio Failure
In case of complete failure of the radio, attract
the attention of the tower by flying over the
field 500 feet above traffic and repeatedly flashing the landing lights or signaling with the recognition lights or the Aldis lamp; obtain clearance to enter traffic by light-gun signals from
the tower.
RUNWAY LIGHTS APPEAR TO BE IN SINGLE ROW AT
COMPLETION OF TURN ON TO BASE LEG
Night Landings
Always know the altimeter setting, exactly
what traffic· pattern is used, and the altitude
before takeoff. At strange fields notify the
tower of your presence early. One of the main
jobs of the tower is to tell you the number and
location of other aircraft in the area. Remember
that day and night traffic altitudes differ at
many fields, usually being higher at night. Give
the tower a chance to warn you of traffic conditions. It may be necessary to hold you in a zone
until other operations are completed. Ask the
heading of the landing runway, the wind, altimR EST RIC TED
START TURN ON FINAL APPROACH AS TWO ROWS
OF LIGHTS START TO SEPARATE
the base leg, the 2 rows of runway lights will
look like a single row. Start your turn at the
moment the 2 rows of lights start to separate.
Complete your roll-out from your standardrate turn just as the rows of runway lights are
squared away ·a t full width. Don't lose altitude
in your turn. The most common error is not to
lead the turn enough, find that you are going
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too far past the straight line with the runway,
and then to steepen the tum. Don't make this
mistake. Turns steeper than standard rate
should not be made at night in a B-24, especially at reduced speeds used in the traffic pattern.
Final Approach
Make sure of your line-up with the runway
just as soon as your tum on final is completed.
Then you are free to concentrate all your attention on your descent. Turn your landing lights
on as soon as you roll out on final approach. In
case a hazed condition blinds you, it is satisfactory to use only the landing light on the copilot's side until you are closer to the field.
Pull up closer to the field at night than in the
daytime. You want to make a somewhat
steeper approach, controlling your descent
carefully with power. When you are high, the
double row of runway lights at the far end of
the field appear to be raised up. When you are
low the pattern of runway lights flattens out.
What you want to do is to pick a landing spot
and make it good.
Making Good Your Point
TOO LOW-LIGHT PATTERN APPEARS FLAT
The green lights at the approach end of the
runway are the point you want to make good.
As you start your descent, line up these lights
with a reference point on the outline of the nose
or in your windshield. If the green lights move
higher, you are undershooting; if they move below your reference line as you descend, you are
overshooting. Make adjustments in power accordingly. As in a day landing, maintain a
descending airspeed of 125 mph and a descent
rate of about 500 feet a minute. Keep your copilot on his job. Have him call off both airspeed
and altitude.
How to Use Your Eyes
TOO HIGH-LIGHT PATTERN APPEARS TO RUN UPHILL
228
Remember the principles of night vision. Don't
look at things directly. Keep your eyes shifting
from the general pattern of lights, to the point
you want to make good, to what your landing
lights reveal, etc. Don't stare at the whole pattern of lights or you will think the field is closer
than it actually is and you'll want to flare out
too high. Don't stare down the landing lights or
you'll tend to fly into the ground, leveling off
late. Remember that the angle of your landing
lights to the ground will change as you change
the attitude of the airplane. At the beginning
of your descent, they will be at a steeper angle
than your descent path. As you come into your
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WRONG
DON'T STARE DOWN
LANDING LIGHT BEAM
OR YOU WILL FLY
INTO THE GROUND
-- --RIGHT
USE ROVING VISION AND YOU WILL
MAKE GOOD YOUR LANDING POINT
flare-out, they will make a shallower angle than
your path of descent.
Watch out for red obstacle lights. These may
be 50 to 100 feet above the ground and may be
on water towers, or on poles with wires strung
between. Don't ever get below them.
let you down easy. Don't pull all power off until you touch. Note tire marks and the size of
runway lights to help your depth perception.
You may think you are down when you're not.
Amount of power will vary from 11" to 15",
depending on the weight of your airplane.
The Flare-out
Landing Roll
If you control your descent to make good your
As soon as your wheels are on the ground, ease
the nosewheel down, and test out your brakes
somewhat earlier than in day landings. It is
more difficult at night to judge how much runway you have left. Make sure you are going to
get the airplane stopped before you run out of
runway. Clear the runway at once. Don't try to
taxi on your own. Ask the tower where to turn
and keep moving. There may be another plane
behind you that also must clear the runway
quickly.
point, it will bring you in to make contact
within the first 113 of tlie runway. When your
lights start to pick up detail on the ground,
you'll be about 100 feet up and should start
your flare-out. The ground will be well illuminated and objects clearly defined. The usual
tendency is to flare out too high and pull power
completely off too soon. Coordinate the reduction of power with your flare-out but keep some
power on to control your rate of descent and to
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NIGHT VISION IN THE B-2 4
A large airplane presents a special problem in
night vision. There are a lot of instruments and
controls, and there is a temptation to flood the
cockpit with white light while you are starting
engines and running them up. There are two
ways to solve this problem:
1. B se a red filter or cellophane covering
over the radio operator's light and over your
230
night flashlights. Then your eyes will be adapting themselves to darkness during your preparations for flight.
2. Another way is for the pilot to use red
adapter goggles until the cockpit _lights are out
for taxiing, using them again during run-up if
necessary. Landing lights will not great\y impair night vision.
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Heavy Bomber Formations
FORMATION
FLYING
When you get into combat you will learn that
your best assurance of becoming a veteran of
World War II is the good, well-planned, and
well-executed formation.
Formation flying is the first requisite of successful operation of heavy bombers in combat.
Groups that are noted for their proficiency in
formation flying are usually the groups with the
lowest casualty rates. Proper formation provides controlled and concentrated firepower,
maneuverability, cross-cover, and precise bombing pattern, and permits most effective fighter
protection.
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Formation flying in 4-engine aircraft presents
greater problems than in smaller aircraft. The
problems increase in almost direct proportion
to the airplane's size and weight. In the B-24,
relatively slower response to power and control
changes requires a much higher degree of anticipation on the part of the pilot. Therefore
you must allow a greater factor of safety.
Violent maneuvers are dangerous and the
necessity for them is seldom encountered. Close
flying becomes an added hazard; it accomplishes no purpose and is not even an indication of a good formation. Remember that it is
much more difficult to maintain position when
flying with proper spacing than with wings
overlapping.
"Safety first" is a prerequisite of a good
heavy bomber formation because of the number of lives and amount of equipment for which
the pilot is responsible.
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THE VEE FORMATION
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Clearance in Training Formations
When flying the Vee formation in training, aircraft must not be flown closer to one another
than one-h~lf airplane span from nose to tail,
and one-half airplane span from wingtip to
wingtip. These minimum distances are to be
maintained under all formation flying conditions.
Keep yourself posted on current AAF regulations concerning clearances in formation flying, since they may change.
Taxiing Out
After engines have been started, all planes
stand by on proper frequency. The squadron
formation leader checks with the planes in his
formation, then calls the towE:r and clears his
formation for taxi and takeoff instructions. As
he taxies out, No. 2 man follows, then No. 3,
etc., each airplane taking the respective place
on the ground that is assigned to it in the air.
As soon as the leader parks at an angle near the
end of the takeoff strip, the other aircraft do
the same. At this point all planes run up engines
and prepare for takeoff. The leader makes certain that everyone is ready to go before he pulls
onto the takeoff strip.
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Takeoff
Squadron formation takeoffs should be cleared
from the airdrome in a rapid and efficient manner. Individual takeoffs will be made, and the
following procedure is suggested.
The leader goes into takeoff position and
takes off at H hour. No. 2 man starts pulling
into position as soon as the leader begins to roll.
When the leader's wheels leave the runway,
No. 2 starts taking off, thus creating a time lapse
. of about 30 seconds between takeoffs. Similarly,
No. 3 follows No. 2, etc. The leader flies straight ·
ahead at 150 mph, 300-500 feet per minute ascent, for one minute plus 30 seconds for each
airplane in the formation. He levels off at 1000
feet in order to avoid necessitating high rates
of climb for succeeding planes, and cruises at
150 mph.
As soon as the leader has flown out the exact
required time, he makes a 180° half-needlewidth turn to the left. The second airplane in
formation assumes the outside, or No. 2, position, while the third airplane assumes the inside, or No. 3, position. The leader of the second
element assumes position on the outside of the
formation and the airplanes in his formation
assemble on him in the same manner.
RESTRICTED
�RESTRICTED
FORMATION TAKEOFFS
Altitude 1,000 Ft.
Airspeed
150 MPH
l
Lead airplane flies straight out for I minute + 30 seconds for each airplane, then makes a 180° half-needle
width turn.
2
IO seconds after lead airplane starts to turn, the
second airplane starts its turn, keeping the nose
ahead of the leader, pulling into position from below (';\
and behind the leader's OUTSIDE wing.
.,¥.
0
per Minute
3 IO seconds after the second airplane starts
to turn, the third airplane starts its turn, keeping the nose ahead of the leader, pulling into
position on the leader's INSIDE wing.
ALL AIRPLANES TAKE OFF IN THE ORDER OF JOINING
FORMATION AT 30 SECOND INTERVALS. (TIMING FROM
THE MOMENT PRECEDING AIRPLANE OPENS THROTTLE TO
START TAKEOFF RUN)
RESTRICTED
233
�RESTRICTED
3-Airplane Vee
Spacing of Wing Positions
The 3-airplane Vee is the standard formation
and the basic one from which other formations
are developed. Variations of the Vee offer a
concentration of firepower for defense under
close control with sufficient maneuverability
for all normal missions, and afford a bombing
pattern which is most effective.
It is particularly important for the leader to
avoid violent maneuvers or improper positions
which will cause undue difficulty for the wingmen.
The spacing of the wing positions in Vee formation is:
1. Vertically: On the level of the lead airplane.
2. Laterally: Far enough to the side to insure
one-half airplane span clearance between the
wingtips of the lead airplane and the wing airplane.
3. Longitudinally: Far enough to the rear
to insure one-half airplane length clearance
between the tail of the lead airplane and the
nose of the wing airplane.
Turns in Vee formation should maintain the
relative position of all airplanes in the element.
Flight of 6
A formation of 6 aircraft is known as a squadron, and is composed of two 3-airplane Vees.
At least 50 feet vertical clearance must be maintained between elements in a squadron, with
a minimum horizontal clearance of half an airplane's length between the leader of the second
element and the wingmen of the first element.
From the basic squadron formation of 6 aircraft the group, made up of 12 to 18 aircraft, is
formed. With but small variations, this can be
changed to the combat formations used overseas. It is the purpose of training to teach a
basic formation which can be readily understood and flown by students and easily adapted
to tactical use.
+
+
+
+
TOP VIEW
FRONT VIEW
234
+
+
Practice Trail Formations
A formation is in trail when all airplanes are
in the same line and slightly below the airplane ahead. The distance between airplanes
will be such that the nose of each airplane
is slightly to the rear of the tail of the airplane
ahead. It is important that this distance be
properly maintained, since if it becomes too
great the propeller wash of the airplane ahead
will cause difficulty in maintaining formation.
Trail formations are to be used only when there
are from 3 to 6 aircraft involved, and for purposes of changing the lead, changing wingmen,
training in leading elements, and as an optional
approach to peel-off for landing.
Changing Wing Position in Training
When changing from Vee to Trail, the wingman
into whom a turn is made while in Vee assumes
the No. 2 position in Trail, while the outside
man takes No. 3 posit on. When return from
Trail to Vee, the No. 3 man in Trail assumes
the inside position of the Vee. Remember this,
for it is the procedure for changing from Vee
to Trail and from Trail to Vee. Also, as explained below, it provides a method for changing positions in a Vee formation.
It is often desirable for a leader to change
the wing positions of his formation, i.e., to
RESTRICTED
�RESTRICTED
VEE-TRAIL-VEE
NO CHANGE IN WING POSITION
3
3
2
3
2
3
2
3
2
2
VEE-TRAIL-VEE
CHANGE WING POSITION
3
R EST R I C T ED
2
235
�RESTRICTED
"'Cz
reverse the right and left positions. This maneuver offers danger of collision unless it is
executed properly in accordance with a prearranged plan. A safe procedure is for the
leader to announce on the radio that the formation will go into Trail on his first turn. If the
turn is executed to the right, it results in the
inside man, or No. 2 wingman, becoming No.
2 in the Trail, and the outside man, or No. 3
wingman, being No. 3 in the Trail when the
turn is completed. The leader then announces
that the formation will re-form in Vee when
the Trail executes a ~urn to the right. This
second turn to the right re-forms the Vee with
the wingmen reversed.
As 's tated previously, this results in the No.
2 man of the Trail assuming the outside position
of the Vee, as the No. 3 man takes the inside
position. Before making each turn it is desirable for the leader to designate the ultimate
position that each wing man is to assume. This
will insure complete understanding of the maneuver.
u
w
Cha,nging Lead in Training
0
"'
0
N
The formation goes into Trail from the usual
90 ° turn to the right or left. The leader of the
formation makes a 45 ° turn to the left and flies
that heading for approxin 1ately 20 seconds or
until a turn back will place him in the rear
of the formation. When the No. 1 airplane
starts his 45 ° turn, the No. 2 plane in the Trail
immediately becomes the leader of the formation and continues to fly straight ahead. At the
end of 20 seconds or thereabouts, the original
leader turns back and takes up the No. 3 position in his element, or the No. 6 position if in
a flight of 6, and notifies the new leader that
the maneuver is complete.
Landing from Vee of Squadron in Training
The formation approaches the airdrome at
traffic pattern altitude, into the wind up the
landing runway, at which time the wheels are
ordered down by the leader and the checklist accomplished. Flaps are lowered 20 ° and an
air speed of 135-140 mph established. The
leader signals No. 3, when over the edge of
the landing run~ay, to peel off, No. 3 acknowledging by peeling off. No. 1 follows, No. 2 fol236
REST RIC TED
�.....
,-,,
/
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~
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,,,-
--- . ',
-- --- ---- -- ',','
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I I ,'
>- '
1/ /
I I
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;
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II/
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o=,
:)
/
1/
;
RESTRICTED
,· _.--- ■-- '4
:,
I
' '\
'
FU~L FLAPS
' '\
\
\
\
\
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
II
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
\
I
\
\
I
I
I
I .
•
• 135-140 MPH
\
\
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I
\
'
' ' \\
\
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
·1
I
I
I
I
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• 20 ° FLAPS-135-140 MPH
- I I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
■
I
I
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• WHEELS DOWN
I
+-
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■
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I
+- +- :I
I
+-
+- +RESTRICTED
237
�RESTRICTED
lowing No. 1, No. 6 following No. 2 and so on.
If there is more than one squadron in the
formation, the second makes a 360 ° turn above
traffic pattern altitude and approaches the field
after the first squadron has completed its peeloff.
Peel-off does not mean a chandelle or a
dive. It should consist of a moderate, level turn
until the airplane is definitely away from the
rest of the formation.
Conclusion
This fact cannot be too strongly stated: a good
formation is a safe formation. Air collisions
usually result from carelessness or lack of clear
understanding between members of the formation. If the simple rules given here are followed
explicitly there should be no excuse for mistakes in the air. A mistake in formation flying
may mean a costly, irreparable loss of lives and
equipment.
Remember that flying too close is not a display of skill; it is a display of bad judgment and
lack of common sense.
Tips on Formation Flying
1. Set rpm to minimum allowable for the
maximum manifold pressure you expect to
use.
2. At altitudes where superchargers are
needed, set superchargers to give about 5"
more manifold pressure than the average being
used.
3. Use throttles to increase and decrease
power in maintaining position. Very small corrections should suffice, if you think ahead of
the airplane and anticipate necessary changes,
and if you give the correction time to take hold.
But when far out of position, or when catching up with a formation, increase rpm to maintain proper manifold pressure and rpm relationships.
4. When under attack, use all available
power required to stay in formation.
5. In order to keep formation when operating
on three engines it is necessary for pilot and
copilot to react as a team in applying the required new power settings while the airplane
still has momentum and before it falls behind.
If you wait too long before increasing power
238
you d'rop back out of formation, and have a
difficult time catching up.
6. When changing leads in practice formations or in Trail positions, avoid closing to
proper formation position too rapidly. This
can be dangerous.
7. In moving about in position, move the airplane in a direction that will not interfere with
or endanger any other aircraft in the forma- '
tion. In route formation, aircraft should be
spread in width rather than depth, thereby
being able to resume tight formation quickly.
8. Remember that at high altitudes the rate
of closure is much more rapid than at low
altitudes; you may have difficulty in slowing
down quickly enough. Therefore, you have to
begin stopping the closure much sooner. On
the other hand, acceleration is slower, so that
your anticipation of change in position must
be more acute.
9. Learn to anticipate changes in position
so that only slight control corrections are necessary. Large corrections and constant fighting
of the controls quickly wear out even a strong
pilot.
10. Keep the airplane properly trimmed to
compensate for consumed fuel, crew movement,
released bombs, etc. A poorly trimmed airplane
is difficult to hold in position.
11. Do not use only the outboard engines to
maintain position; use all 4 engines.
12. Always enter a formation from below,
which is preferable, or from the same level,
but never from above.
Power Changes in Formation
The recommended method of varying power in
formation is to use the throttles. To do so,
reduce turbo boost, fully open the throttles, and
then increase turbo. boost until you get the
maximum power allowable for the rpm you are
using. You may then vary the throttles from
closed to full open with no harm to the engines.
In loose formation at low altitude, it is pos' sible to use the TBS by adjusting it to position "8" and opening the throttles until you
get maximum power allowable for your rpm.
Then the TBS range from "O" to "8" may be
used safely. This procedure is not recommended, however; use of throttles is pref erred.
RESTRICTED
�RESTRICTED
A
COMBINATION
OF P ·OWER
SETTINGS
POWER INCLUDING BMEP VALUES
AND
POWER
PLANNING
SETTINGS
YOUR
THAT
FORMATION
WILL
2550
2500
42.5
2450
40.0
2400
37.5
2375
37 .0
2350
2325
36.0
35.5
MILITARY
2300
35.5
TAKE-OFF
2275
2250
2225 '
35.0
35.0
2175
2150
2125
2100
2075
2050
2025
2000
1975
1950
1925
1900
ARMY MODEL B-24
RPM vs . MANIFOLD PRESSURE
CHART
1775
1750
1725
1700
1675
1650
1625
1600
1575
1550
1525
1500
POWER
AND
AUTO-RICH
,+..
I
I
'f
100
(Normal
Rated)
1100
90
990
MP
MP
S.L.
25,000
To
&
Above
25,000
31.0
31.0
.....
.....
... ..
.....
.....
31.0
31.0
31.0
31.0
MP
MP
S.L.
10,000
To
To
10,000
15,000
31.0
31.0
30.5
28.5
27.5
26.5
30.0
30.0
29.0
28.0
26.5
26.5
26.5
26.5
I
RESTRICTED
26.0
26.0
26.0
26.0
MP
S.L.
15,000
To
To
15,000
25,000
31.0
31.0
31.0
31.0
30.5
24.5-30.(
24.5
24.5
31.0
24.5
24.5
.....
AUTO-LEAN
RPM
RPM
MP
BMEP
MP
BMEP
ALL
BELOW
ALT.
10,000
RPM
MP
BMEP
RPM
MP
RPM
MP
BMEP
BMEP
10,000
15,000
To
'To
Above
15,000 25,000 25,000
48.5
192
(5 MIN.) 260°C
HD. TEMP. LIMIT
2550
46.0
( 1 HOUR) 260 ~C HD. TEMP. LIMIT
186
880
2490
For Continuous Operation
41.5
at All Other Powers
172
Do Not Exceed 232 °C
28.0
27.5
27.0
26.5
37.5
IMPORT ANT NOTE:
158
75
825
70
770
30.5
28.0-30.0
MP
IN
2400
80
.....
HELPFUL
2700
1200
AUTO-LEAN
31.0
31.0
27.5
27.0
26.5
26.0
BHP
R- 1830-43 & R- 1830-65 ENGINES
1875
1850
1825
1800
PER
CENT
32.0
31.5
31.5
31.5
PROVE
AUTO
RICH
MP
NAVY MODEL PB4 Y-1
OF
FLIGHTS
ALL ALT.
46.0
33.5
32.0
PERCENT
FOR VARIOUS ALTITUDES
RPM
2200
AND
2325
Do Not Increase MP More Than
35.5
154
2". Hg. Above Given Values
Without Raising RPM
2250
35.0
BMEP
148
2200
=
433 x BHP
RPM
2200
32.0
140
2200
32.0
140
2200
32.0
140
2200
32.0
140
65
715
60
660
2050
31.0
139
2050
31.0
139
2050
31.0
139
2050
31.0
139
55
605
1900
31.0
138
1900
31.0
138
1900
31.0
138
2000
3.00
131
550
1750
31.0
136
1750
31.0
136
1850
30.0
129
2000
50
45
495
1650
30.0
130
1750
28.5
122
1850
27.0
116
1900
26.5
113
1600
1700
40
440
28.0
119
26.5
112
1850
24.5
103
1500
1500
1750
35
385
26.0
111
26.0
24.5
95
32 .0
140
111
28.0
119
239
�RESTRICTED
3
RESTRICTED
FULCRUM
POUNDS
PRINCIPLES
OF BALANCE
The theory of aircraft weight and balance is
extremely simple. It is that of the old familiar
steelyard scale which is in equilibrium or balance when it rests on the fulcrum in a level
position. It is apparent that the influence of
weight is directly dependent on its distance
240
from the fulcrum and that the weight must be
distributed so that the turning effect is the
same on one side of the fulcrum as on the other.
A heavy weight near the fulcrum has the same
effect as a lighter weight farther out on the
bar. The distance of any object from the fulcrum is called its arm. This distance, or arm,
multiplied by the weight of the object, is its
turning effect, or moment, exerted about the
fulcrum.
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J
�RESTRICTED
Similarly, an airplane is balanced when it
remains level if suspended at a cert~in definite
point or ideal center of gravity (CG) location.
It is not necessary that an airplane balance so
that it is perfectly level, but it must be reasonably close to it. This allowable variation is
called the CG range and the exact location,
which is always near the forward part of the
wing, is specified for each airplane model. Obtaining this balance is simply a matter of placing loads so that the center of gravity falls
within the allowable range. Heavy loads near
the wing location can be balanced by much
lighter loads at the nose or tail of the airplane.
If the CG falls within the CG limits, forward
and aft, the loading is satisfactory. If not, the
load must· be shifted until the CG does fall
within the limits.
For flight, since the wing supports the airplane's weight, it is obvious that the CG must
remain within safe allowable limits; otherwise,
the tail surfaces could not properly control the
path of flight. Limits are usually expressed as
a percentage of the mean aerodynamic chord
of the wing ( % MAC). The MAC is simply the
width of a theoretical rectangular wing which
has the same aerodynamic characteristics as the
regular wing.
To obtain the gross weight and the CG location of the loaded airplane, it is necessary first
to know the basic weight and the CG location
of the airplane. This weighing should be with
the airplane in its basic condition; that is, with
fixed normal equipment which is actually present in the airplane, less fuel.
When the weight, arm, and moment of the
basic airplane are known, it is not a difficult
matter to compute the effect of fuel, crew,
cargo, armament, and expendable weight as
they are added. This is done by adding all the
moments of these additional items to the total
moment found by weighing the airplane and dividing by the sum of the basic weight and the
weight of these additional items. This gives the
CG for the newly loaded airplane. This calculation can be performed by arithmetic, by loading graphs, or by a balance computer.
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EFFECTS OF
IMPROPER LOADING
Overloading
1. Causes a higher stalling speed.
2. Always results in lowering of airplane
structural safety factors which may be critical
during rough air or takeoffs from poor fields.
3. Reduces maneuverability.
4. Increases takeoff run.
5. Lowers angle and rate of climb.
6. Decreases ceiling.
7. Increases fuel consumption for given speed
( decrease in miles per gallon) .
8. Decreases range.
9. Lowers· tire factors.
CG Too Far Forward
1. Increases fuel consumption (less range) ;
decreases maneuverability.
2. Increases power for given speed.
3. Oscillating tendency-increased strain on
pilot during instrument flying.
4. Tends to increase dive beyond control.
5. Might cause critical condition during flap
operation.
241
�RESTRICTED
6. Increases difficulty in getting nose up during landing.
7. Overstresses _n ose wheel.
8. Results in dangerous condition if tail
structure is damaged or surface is shot away.
CG Too Far Aft
1. Creates unstable condition.
2. Increases stall tendency.
3. Definitely limits low power; might affect
long-range optimum speed adversely.
4. Decreases speed.
5. Decreases range.
6. Increases pilot s·~rain in instrument flying.
7. Results in a dangerous condition if tail
structure is damaged or surface is shot away.
8. A sudden upgust or downgust may cause
stall before recovery is possible. The reason is
that the elevator is trimmed to keep the nose
down. Each bump throws the nose up. In case
of a severe bump there is little elevator travel
left to bring the nose down, making a recovery
difficult.
242
PROPER LOADING
OF THE B-24
The day is past when the pilot makes decisions
by the seat of his pants, and the loading of aircraft is no exception. Especially is this true
in the B-24. Here is a high performance airplane if properly loaded. But you can't expect
non:nal performance if you hang a ball and
chain on the tail, put a ring in the nose with
hundreds of pounds hanging from it, or suspend an anchor from one wing. Improper loading at best cuts down the efficiency of the airplane and at worst can cause a crash.
In transition, pilots learning to fly the B-24
sometimes get in the habit of overlooking
weight and balance because there are often
only a few individuals aboard, no bombs, no
ammunition and th~ distribution of weight is
of less importance. Bear in mind that the tactical Air Force you join will expect you to know
weight and balance when you arrive. Any B-24
airplane commander worth his salt will take
time to master the relatively simple operation
of the load adjuster.
Note: There is a load adjuster for every
airplane. On the back of its case are blank
spaces for 4 items: 1. AF No ......... ; 2. Model
........ ; 3. Basic Wt ....... ~; 4. Index ........ .
Fields will refuse to clear you for departure
unless these items are filled out and unless you
can complete a Form ~.., (weight and balance
clearance) for the flight as required by AAF
regulations.
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�RESTRICTED
INSTRUCTIONS FOR
OPERATION OF THE
B-24 LOAD ADJUSTER
The load adjuster is the calculator used in conjunction with the Weight and Balance Handbook. Profi€iency in its operation will save the
time and effort of tracking down the elusive
CG by means of mathematical calculations. Its
use in conjunction with the charts and forms
· contained in the handbook insures a safe loading and provides a means of checking exactly
how the balance position will be affected by
each item of load which is added or expended.
The colored top strip is the guide to a safe
loading. The actual loading range is the area
between the yellow sections. The yellow area
restricts these limits further for certain conditions. These conditions vary with each airplane.
On B-24D, E, G, H, and J load adjusters a restriction is imposed when fuel is carried in the
forward bomb bay. This caution is noted so that
the allowable rear limit will not be exceeded
as the balance position moves aft with the consumption of this fuel. When there is no forward
bomb bay fuel aboard, this yellow section may
be disregarded.
The sloping lines indicate the limits of the
loading range for the gross weights to which
tlle airplane is to be loaded. Examination of
the top strip will show that at high gross
weights the forward section of the loading
range increases but ciiminishes at the rear limit.
Comparison of the top strip with the center of
gravity grid will explain the reason for these
sloping limits.
The movement of the hairline indicator translates the change in balance position as load is
added or expended in terms of the index
scale which appears on the bottom of the
rule. This index is merely a simple reference
that is mathematically related to the center of
gravity grid which appears on the inside of the
load adjuster.
The center of gravity grid on the inside
RESTRICTED
of the rule is the basis of the load adjuster's
design. The forward and aft red sections show
the CG limits in terms of % MAC, and it is
fro~ these limits that the top strip of the load
adjuster is derived. The dotted lines show the
fuel travel and determine the yellow caution
are;as for this ~irplane.
The CG position in terms of % MAC and
inches froni the reference datum may be read
directly from this grid. The crosswise lines
represent the weight and the diagonal, downward lines represent the percent. To convert an
index reading to % MAC, note the p9int at
which the indicator hairline and the gross
weight line intersect and the % MAC is esti- ·
mated at that intersection. The marks across
the top of the grid are in inches from the reference datum. The position in inches is road in
the same manner as the % MAC since, had the
lines for inches been extended downward, they
would follow the trend of the percent lines.
The fuselage diagram on the back of the load
adjuster will be of great assistance in deciding
where to place load items. It also provides information concerning leveling lugs, jig points,
etc., to assist you in the actual weighing of the
airplane. The loading scales on the front of the
load adjuster are lettered to correspond with
the compartment letters on the diagram on the
back of the load adjuster.
The basic weight and moment scales on the
inner side of the load adjuster slide determine
for you in a few simple operations the basic
index which is the starting point of all loading
calculations. All that you need do to arrive at a
basic index is set t!'ie indicator hairline at "O"
on the index scale. Then, move the slide until
the basic weight is under the hairline. Follow
that up with a quick slide of the indicator to
the basic moment/ 1000 and the basic index is
right there under the hairline staring you in
the face. If the basic moment/ 1000 should happen to be on a scale other than that containing
the basic weight, don't be alarmed. Just set
your basic weight as above: move the indicator
to the final moment/ 1000 mark at the end of
the scale containing the basic weight; then
move the slide again until the same moment/
1000 mark at the beginning of the next scale is
243
�RESTRICTED
under the hairline. Move the indicator to the
moment/1000 figure you were looking for in
the first place and the problem is solved.
Operation of the Load Adiuster
All loading calculations start with the hairline
of the hairline indicator over the basic index.
From there on it requires only 2 operations
to lead each of the totals shown on Form F.
The first step is to slide the slide until the "O"
vertical starting line of the scale involved is
under the hairline.
The next step is to move the hairline indicator until the hairline is over the weight that is
to be added. The new index is then read under
the hairline on the index scale at the bottom
of the rule.
That's all there is to it. These two operations
are repeated for each loading total that appears
l<li\ll
f'
on Form F. The computations are made in the
order that the items appear in the form and the
resulting index reading is entered in the index
column.
When you're sliding the slide, make sure
you don't move the hairlip.e indicator,
when you move the hairline indicator, see
the slide remains in position.
that
and
that
·
Following these two steps, work out a simple
problem. Don't base any of your field problems
on the data given. This is just to help you to
operate your load adjuster.
Suppose the card in the load adjuster case
in agreement with chart C in the handbook in
your airplane shows a basic weight of 36,767
lb. and a basic index of 63.8.
The index readings for each of the compartments are shown so that you can start working
\DJllSlfR
LOAD ADJUSTER SHOWING LOADING SCALE
LOAD ADJUSTER SHOWING BASIC WEIGHT AND MOMENT SCALE
B-240,E,G,H, a J
PB4Y-1
""ONIITY Of'
u. S. QOYE..NMENT
.,..,,.,. , ,,,.,,.. .. ,,,, _ _.,,,,,.,,n,..y
~Cl,all._. •:.:,::..," ="~u-...,_••' .-.w••-u__,,. __
LOAD ADJUSTER SHOWING FUSELAGE DIAGRAM
244
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your load adjuster, and check your answers
with the index readings given.
Now, get a B-24 load adjuster and get your
copilot and your engineer. If you can't get hold
of a load adjuster any other way, get permission to go sit in an airplane. Then work out the
following problem using the basic index given
in the problem. You'll use the actual basic index for the airplane after you have learned to
use the load adjuster. Have a Form F and fill
it out as you go along. As soon as you have
mastered this problem, teach it to your copilot
and then to your engineer. Whenever a weight
and balance clearance is necessary, you, the
airplane commander, must either figure it and
have it checked by copilot or engineer or have
one of them figure it and you check it.
Set the indicator hairline over the basic index of 63.8 and begin.
·
1. Slide the slide until the "0" vertical starting line of the compartment scales is under the
hairline.
2. Move the indicator until the hairline is
over 260 lb. on Nose Scale A. This adds the moment of the 260 lb. in that compartment and
produces a new index reading of 57.4.
3. With the hairline over the new index of
57.4 slide the slide until the-"0" starting line of
the compartment loads scale is again under th~
hairline.
4. Move the indicator to the 400-lb. mark on
scale B and read the new index of 51.2.
Following the above steps, work out the
other compartment loadings by yourself. You
should not need any further illustration. Each
new addition is made with the indicator hairline over the index determined from the previous operation.
Minimum Landing Check
Having added all the items of non-expendable
load you have now arrived at the minimum
landing check. The hairline of the indicator is
well within the white section and the CG is,
therefore, within the loading limits.
Unless there is a most unusual loading condition, when the balance position at. "Minimum
Landing Gross Weight" and at takeoff is within
the loading limits, no adjustments will be necesR EST RIC TED
sary during flight to keep plane in balance.
If the indicator hairline is, at this point, in
either the forward or aft red section, readjust
your cargo or provide necessary ballast (gross
weight limits permitting), so that the minimum
landing check will show a balance position
within the loading range.
Loa~ing Expendable Items
In order to complete calculations, now add the
so-called expendable load. In this problem ammunition, bombs, oil, and fuel have to be considered. They are added in the same manner
as the compartment totals but separate scales
are provided for the bombs, oil and fuel. The
compartment scales are used for the ammunition.
1. With the indicator hairline over the minimum landing index of 65.8, slide the slide until
the "0" starting line of compartment scales is
under the hairline.
2. Move the indicator until the hairline is
over the 240-lb. mark on nose scale A. This
adds the 800 rounds. of .50-cal. ammunition in
compartment A. The new index reading is 59.9.
3. Repeat these operations for each of the
compartment ammunition loadings using the
scales in the same manner as they were used
for the addition of the non-expendable items
in the compartment sections.
245
�RESTRICTED
4. For the addition of the bombs a separate
set of scales is provided. Therefore, with the indicator hairline over the last index determined
from the ammunition loadings, 79.1, slide the
slide until the "0" starting line of the forward
bomb bay scale is under the hairline.
5. Move the indicator until the hairline is
over the 6400-lb. mark on the forward bomb
scale, thus adding the four 1600-lb. bombs in
the forward bomb bay and providing a new index reading of 61.1.
6. Using the rear bomb bay scales, repeat the
same operation for the bombs in the rear bay
for a new index of 83.2.
7. Slide the slide until the vertical starting
line of the oil scale is under the hairline.
8. Move the hairline indicator until the hairline is over the 130-gallon mark and read the
new index of 78.1
9. The indicator hairline is now over the "0"
starting line of the wing fuel scale and it will
require only one movement of the hairline indicator to add the 2360 gallons of fuel. You
could move the indicator to the 1400-gallon
mark and then back again to the 2360 but you
might just as well move it from the "0" mark
right to the 2360 and let it go at that for a
final index reading of 77 .0.
Crew Change Scale
Since the Form F was filled out considering
the crew members· at battle stations, you had
best put the tail gunn~r and the side gunner
in the spots where they will be for landing and
takeoff, just to make sure that the balance
position will be satisfactory. You will find that
the crew change scale takes care of this problem very easily.
1. Set the slide so that the mark for the tail
gunner on the crew change scale is under the
hairline.
2. Move the hairline indicator so that the
hairline is· over the bottom turret position since
that is where he will be at takeoff.
3. Slide the slide again until the mark for
the side gun on the crew change scale is under
the hairline.
4. Move the hairline indicator until the hairline is over the bottom turret mark.
5. Now slide the slide until the mark for the
nose on the crew change scale is under the
hairline.
lllllllWAU ■
IUMJOD/Jll6 lliAJIH6E
NIEL IIEIMIDr:
'";izr©-·
246
RESTRICTED
�RESTRICTED
6. Move the hairline indicator until the hairline is over the radio and top turret mark.
These operations have produced an index of
73.2 and placed your ·crew in the takeoff position. This is your final takeoff index.
You will find the indicator hairline right in
the middle of the loading range, so you are now
assured that your balance position is perfectly
safe.
Use of Expend·a ble Items ·
Since both the minimum landing check and the
takeoff index have been within the limits, you
can be reasonably certain that all will be well
during flight. However, it might be well to see
what will happen to your balance position after
you have dropped that bomb load, burned the
fuel or maybe caught a Jerry or two with the
ammunition you had aboard. By checking your
balance ·without these expendable items you
can be equally sure of a safe CG when you
come in for a landing.
You can check this CG .change as load decreases either by adding to the minimum landing index or subtracting from the takeoff index.
To accomplish the former, set the indicator
hairline over the minimum landing index and
use the load adjuster scales to add whatever
part of the expendable load is still aboard at
landing, always adding full oil first since it is
almost impossible to estimate the oil consumption. Then ad~ whatever you have left in the
way of expendable items. If the meters show
that you still have 200 rounds of nose ammunition, load 200 rounds of ammunition on scale
A. If the fuel gauge registers 500 gallons of
wing fuel, use the wing fuel scale and add that.
Always be sure to check your landing CG.
Balance alters with the use of expendable load,
so don't rely on your takeoff index to make you
land safely.
This computation may also be made by using
the load adjuster scales in reverse. This method
starts with the indicator hairline over the takeoff index. Set the slide so that the original
amount loaded on any one scale is under the
hairline and then move the indicator to what
you have left.
You may like the first method better because
it doesn't require so much mental arithmetic.
RESTRICTED
However, you ought to know about this "taking out" process because it comes in handy
when you find in the course of a loading calculation that re-adjustment of load is going to
be necessary. By setting the indicator hairline
over the index reading at which the adjustment should be made and by moving the slide
to the amount originally loaded on the applicable compartment scale, you can take out
whatever you like and then re-load it in some
other section where it will improve your balance position. This often saves re-working an
entire calculation since the index readings on
Form F can be corrected accordingly if not too
much re-adjustment of load is involved.
Reading CG Position From Grid
To check on reading % MAC and inches from
the center of gravity grid, convert your loaded
index. Set the hairline of the indicator at the
takeoff index of 73.2 and slide the slide so that
the gross weight figures on its left-hand end
will be conveniently close to the indicator hairline. The intersection of the hairline and the
line representing the 65,000 lb., which is the
closest to the takeoff gross weight of 64,437 lb.,
occurs about 1/ 5 of the way between the 31 and
32% MAC lines. Therefore, the % MAC may
be estimated at approximately 31.2% or, expressed in inches, between 299 and 300 inch
marks as approximately 299.1.
247
�RESTRICTED
FLIGHT CONTROL
CHARTS
The average pilot doesn't realize how many
horses he is controlling with his throttle hand.
Twelve hundred horsepower per engine is a
lot. Multiply this by 4 and it's a hell of a lot.
Normally you'll cruise auto-lean at, say 2000
rpm and 30" (181 gallons per hour) or 2050
rpm and 31" (205 gallons per hour), thus using
55 to 60% power-Le., you are using about 60%
of 4800 Hp, or 2880 Hp.
These 2880 horses don't have such a big appetite for fuel-200 gallons an hour is reasonable. But now you decide to use 2250 rpm and
35" which requires auto-rich mixture settings.
This is 70% power or 70% of 4800-or 3360 Hp.
You've thereby added the difference between
2880 and 3360, or 480 horses, and are they
hungry! Your fuel consumption jumps from
205 gallons per hour to 348 gallons per hour.
For an increase from 60 to 70% power, you
have to use almost 70% more fuel per hour and
your gain in airspeed is only 10 mph.
In short, the moment you go into the higher
power ranges (where you must use auto-rich),
your engines develop a tremendous appetite.
That's why pilots have run out of fuel when
they thought they had several hundred gallons
left. Know your power settings.
Remember there is a minimum efficient flying speed. The B-24 has to be up on the step
to fly efficiently. This varies with weight. The
moment you drop your bombs, this airspeed
changes and must be recalculated. You don't
conserve gas by mushing along at too low a
power setting and airspeed.
The only way to ascertain the proper power
settings and airspeeds for various flight conditions is to use the flight control charts or tables.
Don't Feather to Go Farther in the B-24
It works on some airplanes with light wing
loadings, but it won't work on the B-24. To go
the same distance, you'll use more fuel with
248
2 engines feathered than if you use all 4 engines properly.
For example: With a 45,000-lb. weight, cruising at density altitude of 15,000 feet, best power
setting is 1700 rpm, 28.3" of manifold pressure.
You are getting approximately 490 brake Hp
per engine or a total of 1960 Hp to maintain
efficient airspeed with minimum fuel consumption of 150 gallons per ·hour.
Now suppose you feathered 2 engines. The
remaining 2 engines still have to produce at
least 1960 Hp for them to deliver enough thrust
to give you your minimum efficient true airspeed of 153 mph. There's no way to get around
that. To do this each of the engines must produce 980 Hp. This will require approximately
90% power or 2490 rpm and 41.5" (in autorich). At this setting you will use 254 gallons
per hour compared with 150 gallons per hour
using all 4 engines. No allowance was made
here for loss of efficiency because of the drag
of feathered propellers.
Remember there is a big difference between
maximum economy and maximum range. If
you want to stay in the air as long as possible,
you want maximum economy-as in a case
where you want to hang around near the field
until a ground fog clears.
But maximum economy flying usually means
the airplane is in a semi-mushing attitude. It
will stay in the air but it won't go any place
and it won't get you the tnost miles per gallon
for fuel available. The airplane must be flying
efficiently to get the most miles per gallon.
The charts on· the following pages are for instructional use only. For planning actual flights,
you will find simplified tables in your G file for
the plane you are flying. Such tables are replacing the graph charts, from which they are
derived.
Use of the graph charts in your spare time
will give you a fuller understanding . of the
use of the simplified tables. The charts presented serve only as examples of the full series.
RESTRICTED
�::a
m
"'
....
EFFECTS OF POWER SETTINGS ON GAS CONSUMPTION AND AIRSPEED
::a
n
(Based on 50,000 pound weight cruising at density altitude of 5,000 feet, no wind; see Cruise Control Chart)
....
m
C,
POWER SETTING
Manifold
rpm
Presiure
Brake
Horse
Power
Gals.
Per
Hour
Hours and
Minutes of
Fuel
H
M
Indicated
Airspeed
True
Airspeed
Range
in Miles*
What the Table Shows
Auto-Lean
1500
26"
35%
126
15
52
132
142
2254
Airplane won't cruise at 35% power
1600
28"
40%
134
14
55
152
163
2234
Low fuel consumption. But maximum range
would be approx. 42.5% power.
1650
1750
1900
30"
31"
31"
45%
SO%
55%
146
161
180
13
12
11
42
25
07
165
178
173
183
186
196
2438
2311
2178
12 GPH more fuel = gain 15 mph TAS.
15 GPH more fuel = gain . 8 mph TAS.
19 GPH more fuel = gain 10 mph TAS.
Increase in gas consumption of 46 GPH
gives increase of 33 MPH TAS.
2050
2200
31"
32"
60%
65%
205
250
9
8
45
00
190
197
205
212
2000
1696
25 GPH more fuel = gain 9 mph TAS.
45 GPH more fuel = gain 7 mph TAS.
. 2200
2250
2325
32"
35"
35.5"
65%
70%
75%
306
348
390
6
5
5
32
45
08
197
203
208
212
218
224
1386
1252
1149
56 GPH more fuel = gain NO mph TAS.
42 GPH more fuel = gain 6 mph TAS.
42 GPH more fuel = gain 6 mph TAS.
Increase in gas consumption of 140 GPH
gives increase of 12 mph TAS.
2:400
2490
2550
37.5"
41.5"
46"
80%
90%
95%
428
508
581
4
3
3
40
56
27
213
222
228
230
238
246
1075
937
847
38 GPH more fuel = gain 6 mph TAS.
80 GPH more fuel = gain 8 mph TAS.
73 GPH more fuel = gain 8 mph TAS.
Auto-Rich
t,,)
~
,0
These are roughly interpolated figures to give you an idea of the effect of power settings. Note what
a change in rpm alone will do. Note what happens when you go into auto-rich-Zoom goes the
gas consumption! But remember these figures are for only one weight of airplane at one altitude.
· Different figures apply for different weights at different altitudes.
*Based on 2000 gallons of fuel, cruising in level flight.
::a
m
"'
....
::a
n
....
m
C,
�RESTRIC!ED
HIGH PERFORMANCE TAKEOFF CHART
Normally it will not be necessary to compute takeoff' distances when operating
from airfields constructed for 4-engine aircraft. However, for heavy loads and
for takeoffs from strange and shorter fields it is imperative that you check the
length of run required.
In effect a field is a different length every day. Wind will make a field longer,
hot weather will make it shorter, air density changes its effective length. The
weight of your airplane can shorten or lengthen the field. It will measure the
same distance in feet but so far as the B-24 is concerned these elastic takeoff
strips stretch and contract with the weather. This means that iust because Joe
Doakes took off from some field last Tuesday is no reason that you can do it
this Saturday. The difference between a warm afternoon and a cold morning
can mean as much as 500 feet difference in takeoff run. Variation in wind alone
can easily make as much as 1000 feet difference in the length of your ground
run. The field elevation and runway surface must also be considered. Before a
doubtful takeoff always consult the high performance takeoff chart .
. To get the pressure altitude you can ask the weather office or you can set the
barometric pressure scale on the altimeter to 29.92 (standard sea level pressure).
This will give a reading of the pressure altitude of the airplane above sea level.
If this pressure altitude reading is higher than field elevation, the air is less dense
than the standard for the elevation (requiring a longer takeoff run than usual),
if the pressure altitude reading is lower than field elevation, the air is more dense
than standard and takeoff distance should be less than normal.
EXAMPLE: (Illustrated on chart with red line)
Given: Temperature= 25 °C.
Gross Weight = 56,000 lb.
Field Condition = soft turf.
Headwind = 10 mph.
Pressure Altitude= 2000 feet.
Solution:
Density Altitude = 3550 feet.
Ground run-concrete runway-no wind= 2980 feet.
Ground run corrected for ground condition (soft turf)= 4~00 feet.
Ground run corrected for ground condition plus a 10 mph headwind = 3550
feet.
Distance for transition and climb to 50 feet (no wind)= 1180 feet (same density
altitude used as determined from the ground-run chart).
Distance for transition and climb to 50 feet corrected for 10 mph headwind =
1050 feet.
Total distance to clear a SO-foot obstacle= 3550
1050 = 4600 feet.
+
250
RESTRICTED
�RESTRICTED
TAKE-OFF CHART (B•24D)
DENSITY ALTITUDE -1000 FT.
Q
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______...._-1-4 ► --- J
2. PRIOR TO TAKE-OFF, MAINTAIN TURBO REGULA TOR SETTINGS DETERMINED IN ITEM 1 AND
REGULATE THE POWER BY MEANS OF THROTTLE
ONLY.
...,.q
--------'--u
>--~
Ou_
>.....
z
0
3. SET WING FLAPS TO 20° AND COWL FLAPS TO
z:::,
4. ON TAKE-OFF DO NOT RELEASE BRAKES UNTIL
MP HAS REACHED 35" Hg.
~
so.
5. UPON RELEASING BRAKES, INCREASE THROTTLE
SETTING TO FULL OPEN POSITION AS RAPIDLY AS
POSSIBLE.
6. TAKE OFF AT THE INDICATED VELOCITY SPECIFIED ON THE CHART FOR GROUND RUN DISTANCES.
....c;_....__
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RESTRICTED
8
ILLI ll.
WING FLAPS -20°, COWL FLAPS -5°, TAKE-OFF POWER-4800 BHP
1. AFTER WARM-UP, RUN UP EACH ENGINE SEPARATELY TO 2700 RPM AND 47" Hg MP (THIS SETTING ALLOWS FOR A 1½" Hg INCREASE IN MP
DUE TO RAM) TO OBTAIN TURBO REGULATOR
SETTING.
0
~
~
NOTE: THIS CHART IS BASED ON THE FOLLOWING:
TAKE-OFF PROCEDURE
4
0
L---l~--l---.J.-~-+3,a,-~~-- 1-----+--+---m~--4--~--..--~---~-____,--~--...._~-~
1----+--+---@
NOTE: THE TAKE-OFF DISTANCES SHOWN ON
THIS CHART ARE HIGH PERFORMANCE AND CAN
ONLY BE ATTAINED BY FOLLOWING THE PROCEDURE GIVEN BELOW. FOR NORMAL TAKE-OFF
CONDITIONS WHERE HIGH PERFORMANCE IS NOT
REQUIRED (AIRLINE PROCEDURE) ADD APPROX.
200 FT. TO THE GROUND RUN AND 600 FT. TO
THE TOTAL DISTANCE TO CLEAR A 50 FT. OBSTACLE
AND INCREASE THE TAKE-OFF VELOCITIES 10 MPH.
4
0
==-J,.:_____o_ _~_ _N_ _M_ _~
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0
DENSITY ALTITUDE -1000 FT.
0
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HEAD WIND-MPH
DENSITY ALTITUDE -1000 FT .
0
0
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RUNWAY
SURFACE
251
�RESTRICTED
MAXIMUM RANGE CLIMB CONTROL CHARTS
The maximum range climb control charts are c~lculated on the
basis of rated power climb with a 10° cowl flap opening. A minimum amount of fuel and time is used in attaining a given altitude if normal rated power is used for the climb. These charts
enable the pilot to determine the amount of fuel used and the
distance traveled (with no wind) while climbing , to the altitude,
as well as the amount of reduction in range (because of the climb)
for any given mission.
Example:
At a gross weight of 60,000 lb., the curves show that a climb
to 20,000 feet for a B-24D equipped with wide-bladed propellers, requires about 258 gallons of fuel and the distance
traveled while climbing (with no wind) is 82 miles. The true IAS
(which must be corrected for pitot position error and instrument
error) for best climb as given by the curve is l58 mph. Climbing
at some speed faster than the value specified will decrease the
rate of climb and increase the total fuel consumed and the distance traveled during climb. Climbing at powers lower than
rated power will have the same effects as increased speed.
252
RESTRICTED
�RESTRICTED
MAXIMUM RANGE CLIMB CONTROL (B-24D)
WIDE BLADE PROPELLERS-BLADE TYPE N0.6477A-O
40r--T-r"'T'"""!r--r-r-T'""1'"""T"'"T""'r-T-r-,---,r--r--r-r""T-Y-..,.-l"""T'"'T"".,...,,-r--r-r-r-r-'T"""'l-,--,--~--,--,-,-,--,-.,..-r--,----,r-,--=-ir-r--,-...,.--,.....,....,..."17'T--,--r-r-T"--..,.....,-,--r-T"...,.,~--r-~__,.--,-"T"-l"""'T""T'""',--,"""T"-r-r""""T--..,....,r"""T"--T""'T--,--r-,r-T-r-,-,--r~r-,40
~~
,-
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/
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-
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...... I""--,
r-t---r-r-t;---r-1-----r--r-t-r-r-1-;---r--rr-r-r;--r-t-t-t-t-t-t--t-t-t--i--t--t-+-1--t--t-1--t-+-t-+--::±--t-J-"9-t-+-+-r+--t-+-+-nr-+-+-r+-+-+-+--+-+-+--t:~;.h•
... __. ,,,,,_ - i
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'PRo ----~t--t---t---t--t---t--+-+---.--+--t---.---.-+---+--11--+--+-~--f--f-- r-,.;,-....: >oit ' I
s. ...
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36
~~~
tt-+-+--+--t---+-+-+--t----+--+--t---+-+--+-t---+--+--+--+--+--+---i
1
I
Y/
,. REDUCE
M.P. I
PER I 000 FEET 1728 ABOVE THIS LINE (LIMITING Y1 I '?"..'?.
~ TURBO RPM-21300)
I/
✓'"
~
+-+~+-+--+- .,_
r
~ 19'
:\_?.::
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,
NOTE: I. 1.A.S. AS SHOWN ON THIS CHART IS TRUE INDICATED AIRSPEED
ANO MUST BE CORRECTED FOR PITOT POSITION AND INSTRUMENT
ERRoR To 0BTAIN P1LoT's 1No1cATEo AIRsPEEo.
2. SOLID LINES INDICATE DATA WHICH IS THOROUGHLY ESTABLISHED
THROUGH FLIGHT TEST, WHILE DASHED LINES INDICATE DATA
280 GALS.
~J/L~SEDTOATTAIN
-
::,
~
16
_,,,,,,,,
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_
---------------+---1--..---+--+--+--+------.--.--.-~.---.----------....--.--..--.---.--.. . . .
- l2
3.ALLWEIGHTSUSEDINTHISCHARTAREINITIALGROSS · WEIGHTS.
---1
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~r~~~ISESTABLISHED THROUGHALIMITEDAMOUNT OF FLIGHT
ALTITUDEATCHARTED
DISTANCE
o
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360 GALS.---i--+--1----+--+--+--+--+-+--+--+--,f-+--+---+--+--t---+---+---1--+--+--+--t-+--t--t--1--+--+---1i---t--t
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--"...- 160GALS.
I. RATEDPOWER-IIOOBHP/ENGINE-2550RPM-46 MP-AR
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2. 10°cowL FLAPS
~ " ' 120 GALS.
3. 0° WING FLAP -ADDITIONAL AIRPLANE STABILITY MAY BE
-t--t--1---t---t--+-+---t--t---<i--+--t---t--t--t--t--+--+--+--1--+--+-+---+-+--f--+--t-+-+--+----------t--t--t-~ GAi NED AT HIGH GRO ss w EIGHTS FOR ALTITUDES ABOVE
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32
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---'440 GALS.
/// A.Y ~ _ ~e,,,...o'GALS
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1/4
10000 FEET BY USING
TO
WING FLAP. THIS AMOUNT_.,._ __
OF WING FLAP WILL NOT AFFECT THE RATE OF CLIMB.
--- 4
.
~~~ ...... ~~
ia~,....40 GALS.
I~
0
I
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
MILES TO CHARTED ALTITUDE (ZERO HEAD WIND)
RESTRICTED
25
�RESTRICTED
THE CRUISE CONTROL CHART
Use of this chart allows quick and direct solution of problems involving
various combinations of altitude, temperature, airspeed, gross weight,
engine rpm, manifold pressure, and fuel consumption. It also gives
approximate speeds for a maximum range operation. Pressure altitude: Pressure altitude is the altimeter reading when the barometric
scale on the instrument is set to 29.92" Hg (1013 millibars). This scale
setting should be used when converting pressure to density altitude.
TO DETERMINE AIR SPEED FOR ANY DESIRED POWER AT ANY GROSS
WEIGHT AND ANY ALTITUDE
Enter chart at outside air temperature (A) and follow arrows to pressure altitude (B) determining density altitude. Follow arrows across
to desired or selected per cent power (C). Proiect down to gross weight
at (D). Follow slope of weight variation lines to base line at (E).
Proiect up to density altitude at (F). True airspeed and true indicated
airspeed are read at (F). Fuel flow, rpm, and manifold pressure are
found · at (C).
EXAMPLE (illustrated on chart):
Find the airspeed corresponding to 70% BHP, 12,000 feet pressure
altitude at 32 °C free air temperature and 60,000 lbs. gross weight.
Entering chart at 32 °C and 12,000 feet pressure altitude, a density
altitude of 16,500 is determined. Follow 16,500 foot line horizontally
to intersection with 70% BHP, and proiect this point vertically to line
of 60,000 lbs. gross weight. Follow line parallel to weight correction
to intersection with base line of 35,000 lbs. gross weight.
Proiect intersection to 16,500 feet and read 2l 5 mph true airspeed
and 166 mph true indicated airspeed. (Apply instrument and pitot
position error correction to obtain pilot's corrected indicated airspeed
reading for each individual airplane.)
TO DETERMINE POWER REQUIRED FOR ANY DESIRED AIRSPEED AT
ANY GROSS WEIGHT AND ANY ALTITUDE
This procedure is not illustrated on the chart, but is the reverse of
that given above, except for steps (A) and (B), which are used for
determining density altitude. In this case the desired airspeed is
known at (F). Reverse the directions of the arrows, proiecting down
to (E) an'd following the slope of the weight variation lines to the
gross weight at (D). Project up to the density altitude at (C). The power
required (per cent of normal rated power at sea level), fuel flow,
rpm, and manifold pressure are found at (C).
254
RESTRICTED
�R E·s T R I C T E D
TRUE INDICATED Al RSPEELJ - MPH (PITOT LINES SHOULD BE CHECKED FREQUENTLY FOR LEAKS)
~
NOTE : THIS SPEED MUST BE CORRECTED FOR PITOT POSITION & INSTRUMENT ERROR TO OBTAIN PILOT'S INDICATED AIR SPEED
40
0
140
150
I O
170
180
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
~<9
b
~~,,.,,...--"
'-="o
'
f'PECIAL NOTE : TO CORRECT CHARTED TRU
Al RSPEEDS
~~~~0.---....-.:.----"~_.__~_,__
THE COND ITION OF THE PA I NT _C_,_
A_N_ A
_F
_,_F_E_C_T -+----135,OOO
I
THE ~ 1RSP~ED A'.s MU~H As l 2 -1 !MPH DEPEND I NG ON THE DEGREE OF ROUGHNESS .
GENf;RAL SURFACE ROUGHNESS CAUSED BY
A COLLECTI ON OF MUD OR 101 RT DECREASES
H - --=----.~--+-=~ ~-___.._:P~E~R~F~O _R M
-----,
AN
~C
_E_ A_S_ M~U_
CH
_ A~S~,_
O_R--+M_
OR
_E---+TH
_ A_N_,+-----i 3 ~ OOO
NO I
2
~
(WITHOUT RADAR)
R-1830-43 ENGINE
/8 ENDIX-STROMBER
\
CARBURETOR
I
G)
~
I....
25,000
0
0
0
I-
w
w
LL.
I
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20,000
0
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:)
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t:
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z
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UJ
0
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(/)
~ t-,.------t-; --t-\-t--\-----t--\----t--,.-----H--+t--H--
t\---- + --+---l----1----f 40,000
co
J
I
II
C)
MAX .CYL.
HEAD
TEMP.
232"C
260°C
._________,,.__~~~rr~~~~v--~:+-n-1-~t+-+-t--\~ -\---t\-----1~-l---'r+--+-+--\-t--+-+------+---+--+--l50,ooo
2so·c
MAX. CARBURETOR AIR TEMP. LIMIT
FOLLOW ARRow·s THROUGH POINTS
A-B·C-O·E & F TO FINO THE TRUE &
INDICATED AIRSPEED FROM TEMP·
ERATURE, PRESSURE ALTITUDE,¾
POWER, ANO WEIGHT.
w
AUTO RICH FOR 65% POWER AND
ABOVE -AUTO LEAN BELOW 65%
100% HP=4XIIOO HP (NORMAL RATED>
11
TAKE OFF -AUTO RICH, 2700/48 .5
FOR USE IN CRUISING FLIGHT1. DETERMINE DENSITY ALTITUDE . SET MAN . PRESS. ANO
RPM TO CHARTED VALUES, AS REQUIRED, TO GIVE
SPEED OR RANGE DESI RED .
21N HOT WEATHER INDICATED AIRSPEED WILL BE LOW,
IN COLO, HIGH WHEN COMPARED TO CHARTED VALUES.
CHANGE MAN. PRESS. AS REQUIRED TO OBTAIN CHARTED
INDICATED Al RSPEED .
CTHI S WILL ESTABLISH POWER
EXACTLY. FUEL FLOW WILL THEREBY BE ESTABLISHED.)
3 . DO NOT INCREASE MAN . PRESS . MORE THAN 2" ABOVE
CHARTED VALUES WITHOUT RAISING RPM
4 . AFTER FINDING SPEED FOR BEST RANGE, USE WEIGHT
CORRECTION IN DETERMINING POWER SETTING REQUIRED.
5. FOR STEADY CRUISING IT SHOULD NOT BE NECESSARY
TO RE-SET POWER OFTENER THAN EACH HOUR . EVERY
3 HOURS WILL PROBABLY BE SATISFACTORY.
6 . DO NOT EXCEED 32" MAN. PRESS. AND 2200 RPM FOR
AUTO LEAN OR35.5" MAN. PRESS. AND 2325 RPM FOR
AUTO RICH FOR CONTINUOUS CRUISING .
1 AT AN ALTITUDE WHERE A CHANGE OF RPM IS SHOWN
USE LOWER RPM .
8 . WEIGHT or FUEL TAKEN AS 5 .89 LBS. /GAL. CUSING
STANDARD TEMPERATURE CORRECTION)
9 . FUEL FLOW VARIATION IS APPROX . I% INCREASE FOR
EACH 6000' INCREASE IN AL TITUOE . FUEL fLOWS
GIVEN ON CHART ARE QUOTED FOR 12500 1 FOR
POWERS RANGING FROM 80o/. POWER· TO MILITARY
POWER . AT POWER CONDITIONS BELOW 60%, THE FUEL
FLOW FIGURES ARE QUOTED FOR THE AVERAGE ALTI·
TUDE, THROUGH THE AL TITUOE RANCES IN WHICH RPM
IS HELO CONSTANT WITH THE GIVEN POWER CONDITION.
FUEL FLOW FIGURES ARE FOR BENDIX STROMBERG
,CARBURETOR SETTINGS PD-12F2-14, PD-12FS- 14 .
~
38°C
FUEL USED -GALS.
WEIGHT LOST- LBS.
TO OBTAIN G W. AT ANY POINT DURING FLIGHT
SUBTRACT WT. OF FUEL USED FROM INITIAL G.W.
RESTRICTED
CRUISING CONTROL
CHART
MODELS B-24G,H & J
NAVY PB4Y-I
9
6
500
I
1.opo
I
I
I
5,000
,1.5po
I
10,000
I
~:oro,
I
2.~p~
I
15,000
,3.o,oo
13.100
20,000
NOTE: THE SPEEDS SHOWN ON THIS CHART APPLY FOR AIRPLANES EQUIPPED
WITH PROPELLERS HAVING BLADE TYPE 1i6353A-18 OR 6477A-O
255
�RESTRICTED
3-ENGINE CRUISING CONTROL CHART
The form on this ch~rt is the same as that of the 4-engine cruise control
chart and it is to be used in the same manner.
Though extensive tests of 3-engine performance were not made,
data obtained indicate that the chart gives conservative values. It is
recommended that the pilot check his individual airplane against this
chart to determine how conservative the chart may be. The worst
3-engine condition (left outboard engine dead) as well as the best
3-engine condition (right inboard engine dead) should be checked.
The following facts should be kept in mind concerning 3-engine
operation:
1. Airspeed will be less for a given amount of power from each
engine, so care should be exercised lest the head temperatures
become excessive.
2. Since engine temperatures are likely to become critical at high
altitudes, a gradual descent to the lowest practical level is recommended.
3. The rpm and manifold pressure combinations which are used
for normal operation should be satisfactory for the 3-engine condition;
but it has been found that cooling is improved somewhat by using
higher rpm and lower manifold pressure than those shown on the
cruising control chart.
The additional dashed lines on this ch.art show the approximate
minimum percent BHP which can be used for given gross weights.
Corresponding airspeeds may be found by using the gross weight
correction lines at the bottom of the chart in the regular manner.
256
RESTRICTED
�RESTRICTED
3-ENGINE CRUISING CONTROL CHART (B-24D)
TEMPERATURE
0
TRUE INDICATED AIRSPEED - M.P.H.
°C
20
40
60
170
180
190
200
210
220
230
35
30
30
25
25
~
LL
0
0
0
i-:
NOTE: INTERSECTIONS OF
DASHED LINES & ¾ POWER LINES
GIVE CEILINGS FOR THE VARIOUS
WEIGHT & POWER COMBINATIONS.
USE GROSS WEIGHT CORRECTION
LINES TO OBTAIN SPEEDS
w
0
::> 20
t~
<(
>
u.
0
0
0
w
20
0
:::>
t:
~
<(
15
15
>-
t-
t-
U)
(/)
z
z
w
w
0
0
10
HEAD TEMPERATURE LIMITS
CONDITION
CONTINUOUS
CRUISING
-----......;:i~...,_~_,,;;~-...,.;...~__,;,;~~__;~!.....3._:._~6~00
RESTRICTED
257
�RESTRICTED
MAXIMUM RANGE CONTROL CHART
Enter the chart with the desired gross weight, using the scale at the
bottom of the chart. Proiect vertically, and at the proper altitude
for each set of curves, read in turn:
1. Airspeed (to be corrected for instrument error).
2. Engine rpm.
3. Manifold pressure.
4. Brake horsepower.
5. Total fuel consumption.
6. Miles per gallon.
Having picked off the condition, set rpm and manifold pressure.
Manifold pressure may have to be varied to give the desired airspeed.
At charted speed and rpm the manifold pressure will be high in hot
weather, low in cold weather, when compared to charted values.
Manifold pressure should not be raised more than 2" above the
charted value without raising rpm.
EXAMPLE: (Taken from maximum range control chart.)
Given:
Gross weight-45,000 lb.; Density altitude-15,000 feet.
Results:
True IAS-153 mph (apply pilot's instrument correction).
RPM = 1720; manifold pressure-28.3
BHP= 490 per engine (approx.). Fuel flow= 150 GPH (approx.)
Miles per gal. = 1.31 (approx.)
Notes:
1. For steady cruising it should not be necessary to re-set power
more often than each hour. Every 3 hours will probably be satisfactory.
2. At low IAS,. when flying on the autopilot, the pilot should pay
close attention to the airplane in order to prevent inadvertent stalling
when the airplane flies through sharp updrafts. However, in cases
where maximum range and endurance demand low speeds, the airplane may be flown manually, returning to automatic control when
the low speeds are no longer required.
3. At speeds other than those for maximum range or maximum
endurance, the cruising control chart is used as a guide .
. 258
RESTRICTED
�RESTRICTED
MAXIMUM RANGE CONTROL CHART (B-24D)
MILES PER GALLON
~
JJ
,-.
FUEL FLOW- GALLONS PER HOUR
0
'It
0
N
~in.V
§
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
c, .0 •
N 0
c,
c, •
N 0
C")l")tf')ff>ff>NNNNN
BHP PER ENGINE
0
c,
8
~
8
8
2
8
I [
~
2
~
co,-.c,
. . .
MILES PER GALLON
PROCEDURE:
ENTER CHART AT GIVEN
GROSS WEIGHT. PROJECT
VERTICALLY AND OBTAIN
SETTING FOR TRUE INDICATED AIRSPEED, ENGINE
RPM AND APPROX. MANI-
RESTRICTED
tl)00000000
VN0C>C>VN0
V • • ,,, ~tf>ff>M
000000000
co«o-tN0GC)~N
NNNNN- - - -
FUEL FLOW
GALLONS PER HOUR
FOLD PRESSURE AT ANY
GIVEN ALTITUDE.
NOTE
1. TRUE INDICATED AIRSPEED
MUST BE CORRECTED TO
PILOTS INDICATED.
2. ~FUEL CONSUMPTION AND
MILES/GA~LON OF FUEL ARE
FOR CHECK PURPOSES ONLY.
BHP IS APPROX. FOR A GIVEN
ENGINE RPM AND MANIFOLD
PRESSURE.
0
0
v,
0
II)
•
0
0
V
~
0
II)
=ocac,,-...c,tt)
•·•
fl>
N
N
N
N
N
ff>
BHP PER
ENGINE
.,,
0
0
C)
\
l\,
\ 11
00>
I 2
1~ l
' \\
,'If.
AIRSPEED IN MPH
ENGINE SPEED-RPM
.,
tll
.,
•• ,-.. c, it, •
ff> N C,c,c,,-.."'-C>C)W,C")C")C")C")ff>C"),.,,
1()//id
C")t{)
0
TRUE INDICATED
MANIFOLD PRESSURE
IN INCHES OF He.
MANIFOLD PRESSURE
IN INCHES OF HG
11
0
0
.,
0
0
'°
0
0
0
C)
0
V)
~
ENGINE SPEED
IN RPM
TRUE INDICATED
AIRSPEED IN MPH
SPECIAL NOTE: THE LOSS IN TRUE AIRSPEED DUE TO:
1. THREE NOSE GUNS IS 2 MPH.
2. ROUGH PAINT IS 2-7 MPH DEPENDING ON THE DEGREE OF ROUGHNESS.
3. GENERAL SURFACE ROUGHNESS CAUSED BY A COLLECTION OF MUD OR
DIRT IS AS MUCH AS ITEM NO. 2.
��RESTRICTED
QUESTIONS
AND ANSWERS
1. Q. Is it proper to decrease rpm before
manifold pressure?
A. No. Decrease manifold pressure first,
then the rpm.
2. Q. What is the proper method to increase
rpm and power settings?
A. Increase the rpm first, then the manifold pressure.
3. Q. When flying on instruments, name
some of the conditions you may encounter that
are not prevalent in contact flight?
A. Wing icing. Propeller icing. Pitot tube
icing. Carburetor icing.
4. Q. How would you combat the conditions
in question No. 3?
A. Operation of wing and tail group deicer boots if conditions warrant it. Operation
of propeller anti-icer system-should be put in
operation before icing conditions exist. Turning
on pitot tube heaters before flying on instruments. Closing the intercoolers and opening
throttles when drop of manifold pressure or
engine roughness occurs.
Note: Intercoolers should not be used for longer
periods than necessary.
5. Q. Are there any restrictions on the use
of the landing lights?
A. Yes. Due to the lack of rapid air circulation required to cool the lights, they should
not be used longer than 3 minutes at a time
while on the ground. Otherwise, light-bulb
failure is likely. Use alternately while taxiing.
6. Q . · When do you use the carburetor air
filters?
A. When dusty air conditions are encountered on the ground or in the air.
RESTRICTED
7. Q. If you had hot gasoline (because of hot
weather or a hot engine) with possible vapor
lock trouble in flight, how would you remedy
the situation?
A. By using .the electrkbooster pump.
8. Q. In the event of a gasoline stoppage to
an engine, what is the first indication on the
instrument panel?
A. Fuel pressure drop.
9. Q. What is maximum allowable rpm and
manifold pressure for using "AUTO-LEAN"?
A. 32" manifold pressure, 2200 rpm (grade
100 fuel) and 30" manifold pressure, 2100 rpm
with grade 91 fuel.
10. Q. When do you use "FULL (EMERGENCY) RICH"?
A. At such time as the "AUTO-RICH"
setting becomes faulty.
11. Q. If you were climbing at 35" manifold
. pressure and 2300 rpm and you reduced rpm
to 2000, what would happen to the manifold
pressure?
A. An increase of manifold pressure will
occur with a resultant increase in BMEP.
12. Q. What is the desirable continuous operation head temperature?
· A. 200 ° to 232 °C. Desirable 205°.
13. Q. What is the maximum one-hour continuous operation head temperature?
A. Not to exceed 260 °. Must be in
"AUTO-RICH."
14. Q. At what rpm should Engine 3 be running to operate the hydraulic system normally?
A. Approximately 1000 rpm is required
to operate the hydraulic system efficiently.
15. Q. If the propeller on Engine 3 is allowed
261
�RESTRICTED
to windmill, is the rpm sufficient to operate the
hydraulic system?
A. The hydraulic pumps on Engine 3 will
i perate and supply pressure for the hydraulic
system at all times when the engine is turning
over. However, at low rpm the volume of oil
supplied will be small; therefore, the action of
any unit that is operated will be very slow.
16. Q. What should I do if a tire blew out
on landing?
A. Put the nosewheel firmly on the
ground. Use the engines on the side the tire is
blown on, concentrating preferably on the outboard, and use sufficient brake on the good tire
. to keep the airplane rolling straight.
17. Q. What is the allowable range of brake
accumulator pressures?
A. 850 to 1250 lb.
18. Q. What is the landing gear kick-out
pressure?
.
A. Landing gear down-850 lb.
Landing gear up-1100 lb.
19. Q. Explain the different methods of lowering th_e flaps.
A. (a) Move the flap handle to "DOWN";
(b) If engine-driven hydraulic pump
fails, 0r No. 3 engine is feathered, open emergency hydraulic (star) valve, turn on auxiliary
hydraulic pump and place flap handle in
" DOWN" position;
(c) Move the flap handle to "DOWN."
Close forward valve and open rear valve and
hand-pump flaps down. Use this procedure
when engine pump and auxiliary hydraulic
pump are not working.
20. Q. How long will it take to bleed the
shuttle valve for flap operation after the flaps
have been lowered by means of the hand
pump?
A. The time required will vary according to the temperature. At times it may take
as long as 20 minutes. Normal operation would
probably be 3 to 5 minutes. On cold days the
aluminum cylinder will contract more than the
steel piston and it may be necessary to tap the
valve very lightly to jar the piston loose so that
it will return to the nori;nal operating position.
21. Q. Is it possible, under emergency con-ditions, to raise the flaps after they have been
262
lowered by means of the hand pump?
A. Yes. First, open both valves, located
on top of the hand pump, to bleed off the pressure on the shuttle valve and allow the piston
to return to the normal operating position.
Second, close the aft valve, leaving the forward valve open.
Third, place the flap sele_c tor valve in the
"UP" position.
Fourth, operate the hand pump to supply hydraulic pressure through the open center system to operate the flaps.
22. Q. What should be done in case of a
vapor lock in the hydraulic system?
A. This means there is air in the system .
The selector valves should be operated back
and forth, forcing the hydraulic pressure first
one way and then the other, forcing the air
into the reservoir until the system operates
normally.
23. Q. What would happen if one accumulator was shot away?
A. One half of the braking action on each
wheel would be lost. It would be impossible to
operate the open center system until the broken line was sealed ( or repaired).
24. Q. Why is the landing gear lever put in
the "DOWN" position when parking the airplane?
A. With the landing gear lever in the
"DOWN" position any increase of pressure in
the system will be exerted on the down gear
mechanism. This will hold the latches in the
down position. An increase of pressure in the
system could be caused by expansion of the
fluid due to heat or changes in temperature.
25. Q. On the new airplanes, without the old
de-boosters, the brake action is slow and then
it grabs suddenly when it takes hold. What
causes this?
A. The metering valve may not be properly adjusted and/ or there may be dirt under
the valve seat.
26. Q. What pressures are required to operate the bomb doors?
A. Bomb doors open-600 lb.
Bomb doors closed-1000 lb.
27. Q. Why does it take more pressure to
close the bomb doors than it does to open them?
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A. To compensate for the difference in
force required on the top and bottom of the
piston due to loss of area on the bottom of the
piston on account of the connecting rod area.
28. Q. Why is the flap selector valve set
to kick out at 450 lb. in the "DOWN" position
and 750 lb. in the "UP" position?
A. To allow for the different operating
forces required on the up and down operation,
as well as to compensate for the loss of area
on the bottom of the piston due to the connecting rod area.
29. Q. How can we determine when the air
pressure in the accumulators is low?
A. When use of the brakes causes the
accumulator pressure to drop rapidly, by chattering of the unloading valve when the accumulator is charged, or by frequent cutting in of
the auxiliary hydraulic pump when this facility
is in use.
30. Q. Can the air pressure in the accumulators be checked without removing the oil in the
system?
A. No. The hydraulic fluid must be removed from the accumulator before the air
pressure can be measured. If this were not
done the gage would register the combined oil
and air pressure.
31. Q. How often should the air pressure in
the accumulators be checked?
A. During extreme cold conditions, the
accumulators should be checked daily. Sluggish brake action usually indicates low air
pressure in the accumulators.
32. Q. If a brake expander tube were ruptured, could the system be repaired so that the
hydraulic fluid would riot be lost when the
brakes were operated?
A. Yes. By disconnecting the line at the
brake valve and sealing the opening, or by
breaking the line to the brake expqnder affected, and pinching or sealing the end.
33. Q. Is it possible to operate the flaps with
accumulator pressure?
A. Yes. The procedure is as follows:
1. With the bomb doors closed, place
the utility valve in the bomb door closed position.
2. Place the bombardier's bomb door
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selector valve in the bomb door open position.
3. The pressure from the accumulator
is tl;ien routed from the accumulator through
the pressure line to the utility valve, out of
the valve through the bomb door closed line to
the operating cylinders at the bomb doors.
Since the bomb doors are closed, the pressure
backs up through the line to the bombardiers'
bomb door selector valve. When the selector
valve is in the bomb door open position, the
bomb door closed line is the return, therefore,
the pressure enters the open center system.
By operating the flap or landing gear selector
valve either unit will operate from the accumulator pressure provided there is sufficient pressure in the accumulator.
34. Q. Explain in detail all the methods of
lowering the landing gear.
A. a. Lowering the gear through the regular method of hydraulic pressure created by
No. 3 engine hydraulic pump.
b. Lowering, the gear by hydraulic
pressure created by the electric auxiliary system.
c. Lowering by hydraulic pressure
created by the hand hydraulic pump on the
copilot's side of the cockpit.
. d. Lowering the gear manually by the
hand crank mounted on the forward spar, requiring between 28 to 32 turns. Caution: This
crank must be wound back to its original position before raising the gear hydraulically.
On late model airplanes the nosewheel can be
extended manually in this manner. Pry open
up-latch and depress drag strut to hold lock
open, then disconnect lock mechanism with
quick disconnect pin. Gear can be pushed overboard by lifting up and forward on the top of
oleo cylinder. Gear will fall out and lock down.
35. Q. ' When the landing gear is lowered,
under what condition is the selector valve first
placed in the "UP" position, and why?
A. To insure a full supply of fluid on the
up side of the piston and lines which will cushion the shock produced by dropping the main
gear and relieve up locks of full weight of gear
before they are unlatched. This is an advisable
operation when lowering gear after flights of
long duration. (Over 2 hours.)
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36. Q. Is it possible to lower the tailskid
when the landing gear is lowered by emergency methods?
A. The tailskid is not lowered when the
Lmding gear is lowered with the emergency
hand crank. It is lowered by hydraulic pressure only.
37. Q. Is it necessary in emergency landing
gear operation to unwind the cables on the
drum before raising the gear?
A. Yes. If this is not done, the gear will
not lock up.
38. Q. Why is it necessary to put the selector valve in the "DOWN" position when using
emergency manua~ cable system for lowering
the landing gear?
A. To relieve the hydraulic pressure on
the up side of the operating cylinder, otherwise a hydraulic lock would be formed.
39. Q. Why must the utility valve be held
open until the bomb doors are fully open?
A. Hydraulic pressure is supplied to the
bomb door operating cylinders only when the
valve is held in the open or closed position.
When released, th~ utility valve returns to the
neutral position which shuts off the hydraulic
pressure.
40. Q. Is there a manual operation for lowering the flaps?
A. No.
41. Q. What should be done if the hydraulic
suction line between the reservoir and No. 3
engine pump is broken?
A. Open the emergency hydraulic (star)
valve and operate the auxiliary hydraulic pump
to supply pressure for the open center system
taking oil from the bottom of the reservoir. The
check valve automatically shuts off the broken
suction line.
42. Q. What should be done if the pressure
line from engine No. 3 is broken?
A. Break the suction line to prevent loss
of reserve oil and open the 3-way suction valve
to take oil from the bottom of the reservoir.
Open the emergency hydraulic star valve and
turn on the auxiliary hydraulic pump to supply
pressure through the open center system.
43. Q. Should the airplane be taxied with
the inboard or outboard engines?
264
A. Taxiing with the outboard engines
gives better control; therefore, they should
be used. However, do not allow inboards to
foul up.
44. Q. a. If, with the gear down, the throttle
horn blows and the light does not come on,
where would you look for the trouble? '
b. Would you land with the horns
blowing and no light?
A. a. The trouble usually occurs in the
micro-switches sticking on the main landing
gear. This trouble cannot be remedied from the
cockpit. The light and the horns are on the
same electric circuit. The micro-switch on the
nosewheel locking mechanism can be checked
and should be checked' to see if it is the cause.
If this switch is not at fault, there is nothing
that can be done to remedy the matter while
in the air.
b. Yes. If a visual check absolutely
indicated that the gear was down and locked.
45. Q. When starting an engine how would
you know if it is under-primed? Over-primed?
A. Usually an under-primed engine fails
to give an indication of wanting to start or there
may be a weak explosion occasionally while
the engine is being turned over by the starter.
An over-primed engine is usually one where
the mixture is so rich and the explosions are so
weak they will not keep the engine running;
also white vapor coming out of the exhaust pipe
is an indication, under some conditions, of an
over-primed engine. Note: It is practically impossible to write all the causes or combinations
of causes and remedies for the above. It is up
to the pilot to learn the symptoms himself and
apply the proper remedy.
' 46. Q. With a flooded engine, where would
you place the throttle while starting?
A. Place the throttle in the open position.
· 47. Q. What is liable to happen if you take
off in "AUTO-LEAN?"
A. If the carbllretor mixture is in proper
adjustment, possibly nothing would happen because the fuel mixture curve in "AUTO-LEAN"
is almost the same as "AUTO-RICH" at maximum power output. However,·the danger is that
the fuel mixture curve drops rapidly to a leaner
mixture upon slight reduction of power. This
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will cause detonation and possible engine
failure.
48. Q. How would you determine whether
the artificial horizon air screen is dirty?
A. By observing the speed with which
the instrument erects when the engine driving
the instrument vacuum pump is started.
49. Q. Would you cage and set your artificial
horizon in a climbing turn? Why?
A. No. Because it would give erroneous
readings and it would take several minutes for
it to seek its proper position again.
50. Q. What are the maximum allowable
precession limits on the directional gyro?
A. Precession shall not exceed 3 ° in
either direction for any 15-minute period on
any heading, except that a maximum of 5 °
precession is permitted on one heading when
the total precession on 4 headings 90 ° apart
from each other does not exceed 12 ° and the
precession does not exceed 3 ° on any of the
other 3 headings.
51. Q. What is a spilled gyro instrument and
how is this accomplished?
A. A spilled gyro is a gyro which has exceeded its stop limits. Occurs during acrobatics
or banks steeper than the stop limits of the
instrument.
52. Q. How do you know when the engines
are warm enough to taxi?
A. When the oil pressure has returned
to its operating pressure, approximately 80-100
lb.; when the oil temperature reaches a minimum of 40 °C; when the head temperature is
120 °c.
53. Q. Is there any reason why you should
not taxi through mud with the wing flaps
down?
A. Yes. You are likely to throw mud into ·
the exposed flap tracks, thus impairing the
operation of the flaps.
54. Q. When taking a bearing on a radio station with the loop antenna using the aural null,
does the needle always point toward the
station?
A. No. It will point either at the station
or exactly 180 ° away from the station.
55. Q. What receiver and antenna combination would you use when flying in an overcast'
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where reception is poor?
A. The radio compass receiver and the
loop antenna, with the radio compass adjusted
90 ° to the station; or rotate the loop until you
get maximum signal strength.
56. Q. How do you tune the radio compass
to a station?
A. With the radio receiver on the antenna setting identify the desired station and
get a clear signal by use of maximum tuning
indicator, then put the receiver on the compass
setting.
57. Q. Does the radio compass, properly
tuned to a station, always lead you straight to
the station?
A. It will if you have absolutely no drift.
However, with a drift condition, you will fly in
an arc reaching your station.
58. Q. How many radio receivers is the B-24
airplane equipped with which will receive radio
range signals?
A. Three recei~ers: the command set, the
radio compass set, and the liaison set.
59. Q. In the event No. 4 engine was on fire
in flight, explain what you would do in sequence.
A. Turn off the electric booster pump,
turn the gasoline selector valve supplying fuel
to this engine to the "OFF" position, close the
cowl flaps, feather the engine and put mixture
in "IDLE CUT-OFF" when fuel in lines has
been used and fuel pressure has dropped to
zero. In event the plane is equipped with a Lux
fire extinguisher, turn its selector handle to
No. 4 engine and operate the system. In this
case, close cowl flaps to confine CO 2 in nacelle.
60. Q. Referring to question No. 59, is the
condition the .same on No. 1, 2, and 3 engines?
If not, explain~
A. The procedure would be the same,
with the exception of No. 1 or No. 2 Check
which engine was driving the gyro instruments.
Also check No. 3 engine before coming in to
land and be sure the auxiliary electric hydraulic system is in operation.
61. Q. How would you reduce the BMEP in
an engine?
A. By increasing the rpm or reducing
the manifold pressure.
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62. Q. If you knew the nosewheel was not
lined up straight before landing, what would
you do?
A. This is generally one indication that
the shimmy damper is not working. On accumulator-type damper, align wheel with shimmy damper locks. On Houdaille shimmy damper where no lock is available, make a nose high
landing as you would do for a damaged nosewheel.
63. Q. In the event No. 2 engine gasoline
cells became faulty, how would you bypass
these cells and keep No. 2 engine running?
Does this procedure hold true on any of the
other engines?
A. Turn No. 2 engine selector valve to
crossfeed to engine. Turn selector valve of
fullest tank to tank to engine and crossfeed.
Turn on fuel booster pump of fullest tank. This
holds true on all engines.
64. Q. What precautions would you take before transferring fuel from the bomb bay tanks?
A. Because of possible gas fumes prevalent during this operation, see that all the
radio receivers and transmitters are off and
permit no smoking. Unless necessary, see that
the fuel booster pumps are off. Operation of
any electrical unit which might create a spark
should be avoided until the operation is completed, and any cabin heater in operation should
be off. Crack bomb doors 6 to 8 inches and
place observer in bomb bay to note any possible
leakage and any abnormal function during
transfer. Do not remove bomb bay tank caps
while transfer pump is in operation.
65. Which engine has the instrument vacuum pump on and which has the wing boot
pump?
·
A. No. 1 and 2 engines drive the vacuum
pumps actuating the instruments and wing
boots. When the selector valve has No. 1 engine
driving the instruments, No. 2 engine is automatically driving the wing boots, or vice-versa.
66. Q. What is your overshoot procedure?
A. Procedure: First, apply power. Second, reduce flap setting to ½ or to 20 °. Third,
raise the gear. The cowl flaps should be adjusted immediately after power is applied. The
flaps should be completely raised when safe
266
to do so after the gear is up.
67. Q. How do you ascertain the main gear
latch is locked on the visual inspection?
A. By seeing that the yellow latch locks
are in the lower position in the slot. This can
only be seen from waist gun windows when
flaps are in the upper position.
68. Q. If you were taking off into a low ceiling where you would immediately go on instruments, what precautionary measures would you
take before takeoff?
A. Ascertain that all gyro instruments
are working properly. Taxi, making S turns
to determine that bank and turn instrument is
operating. Check de-icer boots for operation
and propeller anti-icer fluid operation. Also,
immediately off the ground, turn on pitot heaters. The pitot tube heaters should be checked
by feel on the ground and then turned off
because continual use on ground may damage
element.
69. Q. What will result from excessive cowl
flap opening?
A. Will result in tail buffeting and lazy
aileron action. Flap opening of from 10° to 20 °
is the range where usually the highest buffeting
condition occurs. If permissible, a wide-open
cow1 flap setting is better if required for engine
cooling rather than a flap setting in the range
between 10° and 20 °. However, the wide-open
cowl flap setting will cut down the performance
of the aircraft considerably.
70. Q. If oil dilution is over-used, what is the
danger?
A. The over-use of this system dilutes
the oil to such a light viscosity that the high
gasoline content in the oil allows the gas fumes '
to come out the engine breather and into the
combustion chambers, constituting a fire hazard.
71. Q. What would you do if your airspeed
indicator failed because of stoppage in the
·passage?
A. Ask the bombardier to call airspeed
over the interphone.
72. Q. In the event No. 3 engine was feathered and you were coming in for a landing,
what would you do?
A. Be sure that the electric auxiliary
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hydraulic system was functioning and in operation, and open star valve to lower the gear and
flaps.
73. Q. Is it necessary to use the fuel booster
pumps after takeoff?
A. After takeoff, when 1000 feet above
the ground, they are not required again until
an altitude of 10,000 feet has been reached or
when a drop of 2 lb. on the fuel pressure occurs.
74. Q. What is likely to happen if an engine
backfires with the turbo waste gate closed?
A. It is liable to damage the waste gate
turbo mechanism and exhaust system.
75. Q. What will happen if you take off or
land with the wing de-icer boots inflated? '
A. It will disturb the air flow over the
wings, causing the aircraft to act in an abnormal way and increase the stalling speed.
76. Q. How do you clJ)proach your cruising
altitude, from below or from the top?
A. From about 500 feet on top.
77. Q. What is meant by flying on the step?
A. By flying the airplane in a minimumangle-of-attack attitude.
78. Q. If you set your turbos for 47" manifold pressure for takeoff at San Diego, would
this same setting give you 47"· for takeoff at
Salt Lake City, Utah? If not, why?
A. No. Because of higher altitude at Salt
Lake City, if the turbo lever were set at the
same position as San Diego, you would have
about 4½" higher manifold pressure at Salt
Lake City.
79. Q. What is the trend of the mechanically
driven internal supercharger in regard to manifold pressure drop or increase in relation to
increase in altitude?
A. The trend is for the manifold pressure
to decrease with increase of altitude.
80. Q. Is the exhaust-drive1;1 turbo-supercharger's trend in regard to increase in altitude
the same as the engine-driven supercharger?
A. No. The turbo-supercharger increases
manifold pressure with increase in altitude because of the density of the air decreasing with
altitude, allowing the exhaust gases to escape
more readily through the bucket wheel.
81. Q. What would the result be if you took
off with the intercoolers closed?
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A. Probably detonation.
82. Q. What is the purpose of the intercoolers?
A. To cool the air compressed through
the turbo-supercharger.
83. Q. When would you close the intercooler
shutters?
A. When flying in icing conditions· to
control carburetor air temperature.
84. Q. How much load will the tailskid support?
A. A very small amount. Heavy loads on
the tailskid should at all times be avoided. Care
must be taken any time the airplane is being
towed backwards that the tailskid never
touches the ground.
85. Q. In the event you encountered highly
turbulent rough air conditions how would you
fly the airplane?
A. Slow the airplane to 150 mph and use
a partial wing flap setting for additional lift
and stability. The landing gear may be lowered
to avoid too great a decrease in power.
86. Q. In slow flight, such as traffic pattern
flying, what is the best wing flap setting? Why?
A. 10 °. This increases stability of the
airplane and also,. lowers the stalling speed.
87. Q. What is likely to occur if excessive
airspeed is allowed with a full flap setting?
A. Possible springing of the flap tracks
or other structural failure would result. The
bleed-back valve which is supposed to allow
the flaps to retract at excessive airspeeds would
not allow the flaps to retract soon enough if the
airplane was suddenly allowed to attain an excessive airspeed.
88. Q. How tight do you have your copilot
snub the throttles on takeoff?
A. Tight enough to hold the throttles in
position but not so tight that throttles cannot
readily be moved in case of emergency.
89. Q. When spinning the turbo bucket wheel
by hand, what do you look for?
A. Warped bucket wheel, proper bucket
wheel clearance, noisy bearing·s, and freedom
of movement.
90. Q. Leaking fluid on the outside of landing
gear wheel indicates what?
A. Indicates a leak in brake line or frac261
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tured brake expander bladder.
91. Q. If a wheel wobbles during taxiing,
what's wrong?
A. Probably a cracked wheel flange.
92. Q. If you smelled burning rubber while
retracting the landing gear, what is the probable cause?
A. Nosewheel not lined straight fore and
aft, allowing it to rub on structural members of
the airplane during retraction.
93. Q. What is the function of the master
bar switch?
A. It cuts all the magnetos off as well as
all electric current unless the generators or
auxiliary power unit (APU) are in operation.
If they are in operation, you will still have electric power but no magnetos.
94. Q. When are the engines ready to run
up?
A. When the head temperature is 150°C,
oil pressure within the operating limit and the
oil temperature above 40°C.
95. Q. What is the maximum allowable magneto rpm drop or engine run-up?
· A. 100 rpm •if the engine is smooth.
96. Q. What is the MAC or mean aerodynamic chord?
A. MAC is the average chord or width of
a tapered wing.
97. Q. Is there a rule-of-thumb method by
which the CG of an airplane can be determined
without the use of the load adjuster?
A. There is no rule-of-thumb method
accurate enough to warrant its use.
98. Q . What is the root chord of a wing?
A. The root chord is the distance from
the leading edge to the trailing edge at the
largest section of a tapered wing.
99. Q. What percent of the MAC is the most
forward limit of the CG?
23 % .
100. Q. What-percent of the MAC is the most
aft limit of the CG?
A. 23 % .
101. Q. How was the CG range determined?
268
A. The forward and aft CG limit in
percent of the MAC from the leading edge of
the MAC is determined by means of flight
tests.
102. Q. What is the effect of overloading an
airplane?
A. Overloading causes higher stalling
speeds, results in lowering of the airplane structural safety factors, lowers the angle and rate
of climb,· decreases ceiling, increases fuel consumption and lowers the general tire factor
of safety.
103. Q. What happens when the CG is too
far aft?
A. If the CG is too far aft it creates unstable conditions, thereby increasing the tendency to stall. It definitely limits low power
and might very easily affect long-range optimum speed adversely. In the extreme condition
it may even cause a stall during an up-gust.
104. Q. What happens when the CG is too
far forward?
A. Fuel consumption is increased, greater power is required for the same speed and
there is an increased tendency to oscillate as
well as to increase dive beyond control. It may
cause a critical condition during flap operation.
It definitely increases the difficulty in getting
the nose up during landing.
105. Q. What is meant by moment?
A. Moment is the turning effect exerted
by a force or weight about a fulcrum point and
is equal to the weight times the distance from
the fulcrum to the weight.
106. Q. If on the final approach with throttles back you accidentally put the propellers
in low rpm, what would happen when you applied power?
A. Absence of usual propeller noise,
very slow response in airspeed increase because of absence of power, much lower rpm
than customary. T.his condition can prove disastrous if the airplane is being dragged in on
the approach or in the event of an overshoot.
Do not do it!
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�'
AC Power Failure ....................... 193
After-takeoff Checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Airspeed Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Anti-icing Equipment .................... 151
Armament, Description ................... 23
Autopilot ............................... 161
Auxiliary Power Unit. ................... 131
B-24N ................................. 27
Bailout ................................. 210
Balance, Principles of. ................... 240
Banks, Angle and Speed in. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Before-landing Checklist ................. 84
Before-starting Checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Before-takeoff Checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Before-taxiing Checklist ................. 46
Belly Landing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Blowouts ............................... 103
Bomb Bay Doors, Hydraulic Control ...... 129
Emergency Operation ................. 205
Bomb Release, Emergency ................ 205
Bombardier, Duties of ..................... 16
Brake Mean Effective Pressure ............ 117
Brakes, Hydraulic Control ................ 130
Carburetors, Description ................. 113
Icing ................................. 113
Checklist, After-takeoff .................. 60
Before-landing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Before-starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Before-takeoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Before taxiing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
End of Landing Roll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Feathering ........................... 197
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Final Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
for Autopilot ......................... 163
Go-around . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Unfeathering ......................... 198
Climbing ..... ·.......................... 65
Control Chart ......................... 253
Decreasing Atmospheric Pressure in .... 67
Decreasing Temperature in. . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Engine Heat in ......................... 66
Close-in Approach ...................... 98
Cockpit, Illustrations of ................... 26
Controls, Location of ..................... 26
Copilot, Duties of. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Crosswind Takeoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Cruise Control Chart ..................... 254
3-engine .............................. 256
Cruising . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Night ................................ 226
Davis Wing, Description .. i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Defrosters .............................. 151
De-icing Equipment ..................... 151
Description, General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Detonation ............................. 120
Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Ditching ................................ 213
Dives .................................. 79
Electrical System ............... : ....... 131
Failures .............................. 208
Fires ................................. 219
Electronic Turbo Control ................. 105
269
�RESTRICTED
Emergency Procedures
AC Power Failure ..................... 193
Blowouts ............................. 103
Bomb Bay Doors, Emergency Operation. 205
Bomb Release, Emergency .............. 205
Ditching ............................. 213
Electrical System Failure ............... 208
Engine Failure ........................ 120
Feathering, Emergency ..... ,........... 196
Fires ................................. 217
Inverter Failure ...................... 193
Landings, Emergency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Landing Gear Failures ................. 200
Radio Failure ......................... 227
Wing Flaps, Emergency Operation ...... 205
Engineer, Duties ....................... 17
Engines, Description ..................... 105
Faulty Operation ...................... 121
Fires ................................. 217
Run-up .............................. 53
Engine Failure, Causes of ................. 120
in Landings .......................... 191
in Level Flight ....................... 189
in Traffic ......•...................... 191
on Takeoff ............................ 187
With De-icers on ...................... 189
Exterior Lights ......................... 224
Feathering, Checklist .................... 196
Emergency ........................... 196
Questions and Answers ................. 199
Final Approach Checklist. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Final Approach, at Night .. .- .......... : ... 227
Fires ................................... 217
Fire Extinguisher Systems ................ 219
Flares .................................. 221
Flight Characteristics .................... 73
Flight Control Charts .................... 248
Flight Restrictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Formation Flying ....................... 231
Formation Stick ........................ 168
Frequency Meter ....................... 177
Fuel System ............................ 135
Fuel Transfer ........................... 137
Go-around . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
With 3 Engines ........................ 193
Gunners, Duties of. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
270
Gyro Flux Gate Compass ................. 174
Hand Pump, Hydraulic ................... 126
Heating Systems ........................ 14 7
High Performance Takeoff. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Takeoff Chart ......................... 250
Hydraulic Pressure Settings .............. 127
Hydraulic System ....................... 123
Failure of ............................ 206
Icing on Aircraft ......................... 151
Inspection, External . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Internal .............................. 36
Instrument Lights, Description ............ 224
Intercooler Shutters, Function of ......... ,. 109
Interphone Equipment ................... 181
Inverter Failure ........................ 193
Landing Gear, Description. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Emergency Lowering ....... ·........... 200
Hydraulic Control ................ ~ .... 127
Landing Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Landings, Belly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Crosswind .... ,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Errors in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Descent for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Forced ............................... 99
Night ................................ 227
No-flap ............................... 101
Short-field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
With Damaged N osewheel .............. 102
With Dead Engines .................... 191
With One Main Wheel .................. 102
Without Brakes ....................... 102
Leveling Off . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Lights, Exterior ......................... 224
Instrument Panel ..................... 224
Limitations, Airspeed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Load Adjuster .......................... 243
Load Factor in Banks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Low Visibility Approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Maximum Range Control Chart ........... 259
Mean Aerodynamic Chord ................ 241
• Mixture Controls, Description ............. 113
Navigator, Duties of ...................... 13
Night Flying ............................ 222
Nose Gear Failures ...................... 202
Oil Dilution ............................ 135
RESTRICTED
�RESTRICTED
Oil System ............................. 133
Overspeeding Turbos .................... 113
Oxygen Systems ........................ 154
Parking ................................ 94
Pilot's Controls, Illustration of ............ 26
Pilot's Direction Indicator ................ 167
Power Changes, Sequence of .............. 117
Power Increase, Sequence for ............. . 118
Power-off Approach ..................... 96
Power Plant ............................ 105
Power Ratings, Definitions ................ 116
Power Reduction, Sequence for ........... 119
Power Settings, Climbing ...... : ........ ·. . 66
Cruising ............................. 71
Effects of ............................. 249
Limits of ............................. 116
3-engine Cruising ..................... 256
Priming ................................ 45
Prohibited Maneuvers ......, . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Propellers, Feathering ................... 196
Runway .............................. 194
Synchronizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Unfeathering ......................... 198
Pumps, Hydraulic .. ·..................... 123
Questions and Answers, General .......... 261
Quick Descent for Landing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Radio Equipment ............... .- ....... 176
Compass ............................. 183
Failure, at Night ....................... 227
Radio Operator, Duties of. ............... 17
Recovery From Stalls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Running Takeoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Securing Airplane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
RESTRICTED
Shimmy Damper ........................ 130
Failure of ............................ 130
Signal Equipment ....................... 221
Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Stalling Speeds, Table. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Stalls .................................. 74
in Turns .............................. 7'(
Starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Superchargers in Cruising. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Synchronizing Propellers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Takeoff ................................ 58
Crosswind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
High-performance ...................... 63
Night ................................ 225
Running ............................. 61
Taxiing .......... ·.· .................... 48
Crosswind ............................ 91
Night ................................ 225
Tire Trouble ............................ 103
Traffic, Engine Failure in ................. 191
Trimming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Turbo-Superchargers .................... 105
Electronic Control ..................... 105
Overspeeding ......................... 113
Turns .................................. 76
in Taxiing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
With Dead Engines .................... 190
U nfeathering Checklist .................. 198
Ventilation System ...................... 160
Vision at Night .......................... 230
W eigli't and Balance .......... : ........... 2~0
Wing Flaps, Description. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Emergency Operation ................. 205
Hydraulic Control ..................... 129
271
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Manuals Collection
Description
An account of the resource
<p>The <strong>Manuals Collection</strong> features digitized manuals held by The Museum of Flight's Harl V. Brackin Memorial Library. Materials include aircraft and engine manuals produced by corporations and military branches.</p>
<p>Please note that materials on TMOF: Digital Collections are presented as historical objects and are unaltered and uncensored. These manuals are intended for research purposes and should not be used to build or operate aircraft. See our <a href="https://digitalcollections.museumofflight.org/disclaimers-policies">Disclaimers and Policies</a> page for more information.</p>
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
<a href="http://t95019.eos-intl.net/T95019/OPAC/Index.aspx">The Museum of Flight Library Catalog</a>
Rights Holder
A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource.
The Museum of Flight Library Collection
Rights
Information about rights held in and over the resource
Published works have been digitized under fair use. Material may be protected by copyright law. Responsibility for obtaining permission rests exclusively with the user.
Bibliographic Citation
A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible.
Manuals Collection/The Museum of Flight Library Collection
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
Manuals Collection
Text
A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text.
Call Number
Call number for a library item.
MANACT.C6.B-24.26
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Format
The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource
manuals (instructional materials)
Bibliographic Citation
A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible.
Manuals Collection/The Museum of Flight Library Collection
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
LMAN_text_028
Title
A name given to the resource
Pilot training manual for the Liberator B-24.
Contributor
An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource
United States. Army Air Forces.
Consolidated Vultee Aircraft Corporation.
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
[Washington, DC] : Army Air Forces
Description
An account of the resource
<p>Revised 1 May, 1945.</p>
<p>AAF Manual No. 50-12.</p>
<p>"Published for Headquarters, AAF, Office of Assistant Chief of Air Staff, Training by Headquarters, AAF, Office of Flying Safety" according to title page.</p>
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1945
Subject
The topic of the resource
Consolidated B-24 Liberator Family
United States. Army Air Forces--Handbooks, manuals, etc.
B-24 (Bomber)--Training--Handbooks, manuals, etc.
Airplanes, Military--Training--Handbooks, manuals, etc.
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
Manuals Collection
Extent
The size or duration of the resource.
271 p. : ill. ; 27 cm
Rights
Information about rights held in and over the resource
No copyright - United States